Language and religion literature used. The uniqueness of Jewish history and religion
When taking on Slavic culture, it is worth noting the mutual influence of language and culture. Here is what A. Koshelev writes about this:
“What is the meaning of the need for speech? Speech is the main way of communication. In coexistence, this ability allows you to create more complex interpersonal connections. All history shows us the constant complication of forms, methods and options for interhuman exchange. Sign language has faded into the background. The language of symbols has become prevalent in our communication.
When we perceive something, we not only define it, designate it, it becomes part of our picture of the World, which in turn is described exclusively with the help of designations, i.e. words Our worldview consists of images and concepts. A concept is a definition of the properties of an object plus sensory experience. Experience is not always required. Then the concept is accepted, or not accepted, on trust. We believe that the earth is round. Not everyone has personally verified this fact.
Let's take a look, for clarification, at the Encyclopedia of Sociology. CONCEPT– a form of thought that generally reflects objects and phenomena by recording their essential properties. The first Concepts related to sensory objects and had a visual-figurative character...”
From the above quote it follows that a person is able to appropriate, assimilate and master only what is defined in the language of which he is a native speaker (of course, for something fundamentally new, new words have to be created). Thus, the development of cultural heritage is inextricably linked with language. Religion is very closely related to language (both spoken and written), and therefore, if we want to determine the place of religion in the cultural system, it is necessary to consider the influence of religion on language, i.e. consider the history of its changes.
It is equally important to consider the influence of religion on literature, because it can and is a tool for drawing up a program for human development of cultural heritage, as well as systematization and preservation of this heritage.
Brief history of the Russian language2
The formation of Russian begins with the separation of the Proto-Slavic language from the Indo-European. It is the common source of all Slavic languages. The consciousness of Slavic linguistic and ethnic unity was already reflected in the ancient self-name of all Slavs - Slovenia. According to Academician O.N. Trubachev, this is etymologically something like “clearly speaking, understandable to each other.” The Tale of Bygone Years says: “The Asloven language and the Russian language are one thing...”. The word language is used here not only in the ancient meaning of “people”, but also in the meaning of “speech”.
The ancestor of modern Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian languages was the Old Russian (or East Slavic) language. In its history two main eras can be distinguished: pre-literate (from the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language until the end of the 10th century) and written. What this language was like before the emergence of writing can only be found out through a comparative historical study of Slavic and Indo-European languages, since no Old Russian writing existed at that time.
The collapse of the Old Russian language led to the emergence of the Russian (or Great Russian) language , excellent Ukrainian and Belarusian. This happened in the 14th century, although already in the 12th-13th centuries, phenomena emerged in the Old Russian language that distinguished the dialects of the ancestors of the Great Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians from each other. The modern Russian language is based on northern and northeastern dialects Ancient Rus'.
A turning point in the development of the Old Russian language is immediately visible - after the baptism of Rus' in the 9th century. The Bulgarian writer of the 10th century, the Monk Khrabr, says that in ancient times, when the Slavs were still pagans, they did not have letters, they read and fortune-telled “charts and cuts.” “Characters” and “cuts” are a type of primitive writing in the form of drawings and notches in wood. So it was for many years,” notes the first historian of Slavic writing. This was the case until the time of Cyril and Methodius.
In 862 or 863, ambassadors from Prince Rostislav of Great Moravia arrived in the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople. They conveyed Rostislav’s request to the Byzantine Emperor Michael III: “Although our people have rejected paganism and adhere to the Christian law, we do not have such a teacher who could expound the right Christian faith in our language... So send us, lord, a bishop and teacher like that.” By that time, Kirill had already begun work on the Slavic alphabet and the translation of Greek church books into the Slavic language. Even during the pre-Moravian embassy, he created an original Glagolitic alphabet, well adapted to the recording of Slavic speech. Kirill borrowed some letters of the Glagolitic alphabet from the Greek and Hebrew alphabets. The order of letters in the Glagolitic alphabet is oriented towards the order of letters in the Greek alphabet, which means that Cyril did not at all abandon the Greek basis of his invention. However, Kirill himself comes up with a whole series of new letters. For this they use the most important Christian symbols and their combinations: the cross is a symbol of Christianity, the atonement of sins and salvation; triangle - symbol of the Holy Trinity; circle - symbol of eternity, etc. Not by chance az , the first letter of the ancient Slavic alphabet (modern A ), created specifically for recording sacred Christian texts, has the shape of a cross, the letter izhei And word (our And , With ) received the same outlines, connecting the symbols of trinity and eternity: respectively, and so on. But in Ancient Rus' the Glagolitic alphabet did not take root. Here comes the time for the second oldest Slavic alphabet - the Cyrillic alphabet. It was created after the death of Cyril and Methodius and the disciples in Eastern Bulgaria at the end of the 9th century. In composition, location and sound meaning of the letters, the Cyrillic alphabet almost completely coincides with the smooth alphabet, but differs sharply from it in the shape of the letters.
Peoples and religions on the world map in the past and present
Religion and language are among those factors that determine the mentality of a people (i.e., the uniqueness of their mental make-up, worldview, and behavior). Naturally, language and religion determine ethnic identity to varying degrees and in different ways; their role in destinies is also different different nations and in the fate of one people at different stages of its history. Us. 90–91 it will be shown that language is not a mandatory feature of an ethnic group: there are ethnic groups that speak several languages, and languages that are used by several peoples. The correlation between ethnic and religious-confessional communities of people is even further from the simple correspondence of “one people - one religion.” At the same time, the ratio of linguistic, ethnic, religious and state borders between societies is different in different historical eras.
In primitive times, in the early stages of the development of religion, when tribal, predominantly pagan beliefs predominate, the boundaries of the ethnic group and the religious community coincide.
In the ancient world and in the Middle Ages, with the formation of state formations and the spread of writing, new complex religious cults of a supra-ethnic nature were formed: Hinduism, Buddhism (and Lamaism as its Tibeto-Mongolian branch), Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam. Monotheistic cultural and religious worlds are gradually emerging, going beyond the boundaries of ethnic and state associations: the Hindu-Buddhist world of South Asia, the Confucian-Buddhist world of the Far East, Zoroastrianism in the Near and Middle East, Christianity, Islam. The geography of world religions was determined by the distribution of religious texts in a cult supra-ethnic language. Among the Hindu peoples, this language was Sanskrit (the language of the Vedas); among the Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans - Wenyan (the language of the works of Confucius) and written and literary Tibetan; among the peoples who professed Zoroastrianism in ancient times and the early Middle Ages, the Avestan language; Muslims (Arabs, Turks, Iranian peoples) have written and literary Arabic (the language of the Koran) and classical Persian; The Christian peoples of Europe use Greek and Latin, while the Orthodox Slavs and Romanians use Church Slavonic.
In the Middle Ages, it was the cultural and religious worlds that determined the map of the world. Each such world includes many ethnic groups, united by one religion and a common, supra-ethnic, language of their creed. In those days, religious differences between population groups were more significant than ethnic, linguistic or state differences. It is no coincidence that most wars (including civil and dynastic ones) were attributed a religious character - just remember the Crusades and Gazavat.
In modern times, most peoples retain the religious orientation traditional in their history - as one of the deepest spiritual and cultural dimensions of society and people. At the same time, with the development of experimental knowledge and rationalism, religion ceases to be the dominant form of social consciousness, and the processes of secularization intensify. After the Great French Revolution of 1789–1794. and especially in the 20th century. in different countries of Europe and the USA, the separation of church and secular life is growing: there is a separation of church from state and school; freedom of religion is included among the constitutional rights of a citizen; different faiths are recognized as having equal legal status; religious tolerance and pluralism are spreading. In Europe and America there are currently no states that define themselves along religious lines (unlike Iran, Mauritania and Pakistan, whose official names include the word Islamic). There are also no interstate associations based on religion (with the exception of the Organization of the Islamic Conference, which includes 43 Afro-Asian states and the Palestine Liberation Organization). Religion is increasingly becoming a private matter of a person, just as confessions are associations of believers independent from the state. Therefore, religious affiliation ceases to be an external, formal sign of a certain status of a state or person.
On the modern map of the world, the settlement of people of different faiths generally corresponds to the historically established geography of religions and does not coincide with the boundaries of languages, ethnic groups and states.
Nations (as a modern form of ethnic consolidation) inherited the mental and cultural traditions of their religion, but these traditions were and are predominantly supra-ethnic in nature. Nowadays, single-national religions (such as the Judaism of the Jews, the Shintoism of the Japanese, or the Armenian-Gregorian Church of Armenia) are rare. Usually one religion is practiced by several or many peoples. These are, first of all, the main world religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam) and some local religions that have gone beyond the boundaries of one ethnic group (for example, Hinduism is practiced not only in India, but also in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Indonesia; Confucianism, except in China, is also in Korea, Thailand; Zoroastrianism - in Iran and India). On the other hand, in modern world It is quite common for several faiths to coexist within a nation. Thus, among Belarusians and Ukrainians there are Orthodox, Catholics, Uniates, and Protestants; among the Hungarians - Catholics, Protestants (Calvinists and Lutherans), Orthodox; in Egypt - Muslims, Christians (Catholics, Protestants, Uniates). In some cultures, one person may practice more than one religion. For example, in China, depending on the time of year and day, the nature of the religious mood or need, a believer turns either to Confucius or to the practice of Taoism or Buddhism; Shintoism and Buddhism coexist in Japanese religious consciousness. Exceptional denominational diversity is characteristic of the United States, where 260 churches are registered, including 86 of which have over 50 thousand followers (Brook 1986, 115). The religious unity of the people is maintained by the Spaniards, Italians, Lithuanians, Poles, Portuguese, French, Croats (mostly Catholics); Danes, Icelanders, Norwegians, Swedes (Lutherans); Greeks, Bulgarians, Russians, Romanians, Serbs (mostly Orthodox).
In modern times, the processes of state formation are directed primarily by ethnonational rather than religious factors.
Often, however, even now religion can become the basis for uniting or, conversely, separating people. For example, in Bosnia and Herzegovina (a Serbian language republic of the former Yugoslavia), Muslims consider themselves a special ethnic group (Bosnian Muslims) precisely on religious grounds. Confessional differences largely determined the confrontation of 1991–1993. Croats (Catholics) and Serbs (Orthodox); ongoing clashes between the Irish (Catholics) and the English (Protestants) in Ulster; several Christian (Arab) and several Muslim (also Arab Lebanese and Palestinian) communities in Beirut.
Thus, in the historical (written) era, religion was not an ethnic-forming factor; in the modern world, church and religious characteristics do not define demarcation lines between states and peoples.
The supra-ethnic nature of religious consciousness
Religion, as a form of social consciousness, is a system of the most important and often very early ideas of society about the world, about man and society, about good and evil, beauty and truth. For many centuries, religious ideas dominated and radically influenced all other manifestations of public consciousness and culture. Therefore, the influence of religion on the mentality of the people is extremely deep and varied.
However, since most confessions are not single-national churches, and, on the other hand, many nations are not united along confessional lines, the affiliation of a certain people to one or another confession cannot determine its originality and dissimilarity from other nations. The cultural features of a people, determined by their religion, turn out to be largely common to all ethnic groups of a certain cultural and religious world. In modern times, as in the past, religious traditions do not so much divide people as unite people into cultural worlds.
As for the identity of a particular people, it is created by the combination of all factors of ethnic formation, and most importantly, by the uniqueness of the historical path of each people, including the history of its religious development.
Language, religion and folk mentality
Religion, like language, is a certain semiotic system and, along with other semiotics (everyday consciousness, arts, sciences), forms the total social consciousness of the people. Like any semiotic system, religion and language have a certain content, that is, they are reflections (models) of the external world: religion - in the system of religious ideas, language - in the system of lexical and grammatical meanings. Religion (at least in the era of the formation of world religions) was the most significant form of social consciousness, its substantive foundation. Throughout the entire historical path of a people, language appears as a publicly accessible shell of social consciousness. In comparison with religion, language is a more formal (less meaningful) and, as it were, auxiliary semiotics. However, language, to a greater extent than religion, is obligatory for all members of society - as an elementary basic layer of consciousness of each person (member of the linguistic community).
Thus, language and religion are connected to varying degrees with the mentality of the people. If religious ideas are the feeding source or foundation of the national mentality (although in modern culture this is not always and may not be fully realized), then the role of language is much smaller and more formal.
However, on the other hand, while religion is usually not a specifically national system of beliefs and therefore is generally less associated with external manifestations of national identity, language, on the contrary, can be perceived as the primary element of such forms of social consciousness as folklore and fiction as a fact and factor, a pledge and symbol of ethnic identity. There are serious exaggerations in such a romantic attitude of speakers towards their language, but these are possible ways to develop the self-awareness of the people.
Unconventional interpretation of the sign in the religions of Scripture
A variety of faiths face a number of serious linguistic issues that require fundamental decisions and special attention to language. The fact is that in most religions the organizing role is played by the idea of “Revelation” - the most important knowledge that God reveals to people as the key to the secrets of life. Revelations could be thought of in the form of fortune telling, prophecies, prophecies of oracles and priests, shamanic rituals, etc., or in the form of special texts (on tablets, in books, clay tablets), inspired or dictated from above. For example, the Holy Scriptures of Christians (the Bible, including the books of the Old and New Testaments) are recognized as “written by the Spirit of God through men sanctified by God, called prophets and apostles” ( Bible Encyclopedia. M., 1991. P. 567).
Religions in which Revelation is thought to be written down are considered by religious studies to be the religions of Scripture (in contrast to the religions of the Cult, in which the veneration of the deity, and not the understanding of his commandments, takes precedence; cf. the cult of Dionysus in Ancient Greece or the cult of Perun among the ancient Slavs). The religions of Scripture include Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, partly Buddhism and some new religions of the Near and Middle East. Books containing divine Revelation are recognized as sacred. The composition of the sacred books is determined by theologians (such books are called canonical); they form the main, most important part of the confessional texts of a particular religion.
The books of the religious canon (the Vedas in Hinduism, the Old Testament and Talmud in Judaism, the Avesta in Zoroastrianism, the Bible in Christianity, the Koran in Islam) are considered inviolable. The success of religious practice (the piety of the ritual, the intelligibility of prayers to God, the salvation of the soul of the believer, etc.) is directly dependent on the correctness of the sacred text; violation of its authenticity is blasphemous and dangerous for the believing soul.
Religious consciousness tends to fetishize the sacred text, that is, to believe in its supernatural capabilities, to venerate it as an icon or relic. In terms of semiotics, such a relationship to a sign is called non-conventional (unconditional), i.e. the sign is not interpreted as symbol some denotation, but as the denotation itself or its component (about the non-conventionality of the sign in connection with the magic of speech, see p.).
From the point of view of psychology, the unconventional interpretation of a sign in a sacred text appears as an irrational and subjectively biased attitude towards the word. These features bring religious and aesthetic consciousness closer together. The famous historian V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote about this closeness: “Religious thinking or knowledge is the same way human understanding, different from logical or rational, just like artistic understanding: it is only directed to more sublime objects […]. We understand an idea derived logically, a theorem proven mathematically, no matter how one or the other is formulated, in any language familiar to us and in any understandable style or even just a conventional sign. This is not how religious and aesthetic feelings work: here an idea or motive, according to the law of psychological association, organically merges with the text, ritual, image, rhythm, sound that expresses it" (Klyuchevsky 1988, 271).
Here is a typical example of how people of the Middle Ages could perceive correction in an important confessional text. In the Orthodox Creed the following words were read: I believe […] in God […] of birth, and not of creation. Under Patriarch Nikon (in the middle of the 17th century), the adversative conjunction a was omitted, that is, it became: I believe […] in God, born, not created. This edit caused severe rejection by opponents of Nikon’s church reforms (future Old Believers). They believed that the elimination of the conjunction a leads to a heretical understanding of the essence of Christ - as if he were created (a thinking creature of being the Son of God). One of the defenders of the former formula, Deacon Fyodor, wrote: “And the holy fathers stuck this letter and the heretic Arius, like a sharp spear, into his bad heart [...] And whoever wants to be a friend to that crazy Arius the heretic, he, as he wants, sweeps away that letter and from the Symbol I want to think lower than this and do not destroy holy traditions" (quoted from the publication: Subbotin, vol. 6, p. 12). Wed. also the assessment of this correction by the monk Avraami: “Look, how through the action of Satan one letter kills the whole world.” Desperate to return to the previous reading of the Symbol - with the conjunction a (the Church Slavonic name for the letter a - “az”), the Old Believers threatened the Nikonians with hell: “And for one az, which has now been destroyed from the Symbol, those who follow you will all be in hell with Ariem the heretic” (Subbotin, vol. 7, p. 274).
Similar facts, caused by the unconventional perception of a sign in a sacred text, are also known in the history of Western European Christianity. For example, in one Latin work of the 11th–12th centuries. the use of the word Deus - God - in the plural was regarded as a blasphemous concession to polytheism, and grammar - as an invention of the devil: “Doesn’t it teach to decline the word God in the plural?”
Belief in the magic of the sacred name led to two opposite extremes: prohibitions on pronouncing the name of God and its repeated repetitions. The corresponding facts are known to many religions. Thus, in the Igbo (Africa) cult, instead of the name of God, a phrase is used that means - He whose name is not pronounced. The ancient Hebrew recording of the name of God - with the help of four consonants - was interpreted by the Greeks as a “covered” (secret) expression of the holy name. In the Latin early Christian tradition, the pietistic attitude towards the name of God was expressed in the principle Nomen Dei non potest litteris explicari (“the name of God cannot be expressed in letters”). In Church Slavonic texts, the prohibitions on the name of God are associated with such an ancient ideogram as the abbreviated spelling of holy words under the title: , , , , , . As for repetitions, multiple repetitions of key words and formulas are common in rituals of a wide variety of religions and beliefs.
The idea of the non-conventionality of a sign in a sacred text creates an atmosphere of special, biased sensitivity to the written word, characteristic of the religions of Scripture, including sometimes in relation to non-church texts. It is known, for example, that the clerk of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, Grigory Kotoshikhin, was beaten by batogs in 1660 for an error in the royal title (Klyuchevsky 1988, 229).
Associated with the unconventional perception of a sign is the fear of translations of Scripture into another language and, in general, the fear of any, even purely formal, variations in the expression of sacred meanings; requirements for special accuracy when reproducing (oral or written) sacred text; hence, further, increased attention to spelling, spelling and even calligraphy. The unconventional interpretation of the sign in Scripture in practice led to a conservative-restoration approach to the religious text: correction of liturgical books according to authoritative ancient lists, interpretation of incomprehensible words in lexicons, spelling rules and grammars - all the main philological efforts of medieval scribes were turned to the past, to the “holy antiquity", which they sought to preserve and reproduce (for more details, see: Mechkovskaya 1984, 18–26; also pp. 91–94).
The influence of religion (including religious consciousness and confessional practice) on languages and linguistic situations led to a number of deep linguistic-communicative processes that affected both the very conditions of existence of the language and its internal communicative capabilities. The most important of these processes are: 1) the spread of bilingualism of religious and popular languages; 2) expansion of the semantic capabilities of the language; 3) complication of the system of genres of written communication; 4) deepening reflection on language. All of these processes will be discussed below on p. 75–83.
Functional bilingualism of religious and folk languages
Impact of deep monotheistic religions under conditions that made it difficult to translate Scripture into new languages, led to the formation of vast cultural and religious worlds - the world of Hinduism, the world of Buddhism, Christianity (with subsequent division into Catholicism and Orthodoxy), the world of Islam.
Religious worlds were separated by the boundaries of the distribution of “their” sacred books and the languages in which they were written: in the world of Hinduism - this is the ancient Indian language Sanskrit; among the Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Vietnamese - Wenyan (ancient Chinese) and written and literary Tibetan; among Muslim peoples - literary Arabic and classical Persian; among Christians it is Greek, Latin, Church Slavonic.
In the corresponding regions in the Middle Ages, situations of functional bilingualism developed, which were characterized by the following distribution of languages: in the church, education, book and written culture, a supra-ethnic language common to a given cultural and religious world is used (which is perceived primarily as the language of Scripture); In everyday communication, in some writing genres, numerous local vernacular languages and dialects are used.
The book and literary language of the Russian Middle Ages - Church Slavonic - is of South Slavic languages in origin. This language is a development of the ancient Bulgarian language, which the Slavic first teachers of St. Cyril and Methodius translated in the 9th century. a number of Christian confessional books. In relation to the East Slavic languages, this is a closely related language, however, not in a direct line, but in a lateral line (in terms of kinship, the languages “Church Slavonic and Russian” are like “uncle and nephew”; direct kinship - “father and children” - this is the Old Russian language in relation to Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, i.e. the language of Kievan Rus and three East Slavic languages).
Church Slavonic, as a supra-ethnic language, in Rus' was not anyone’s native (mother) language; it was learned from books. However, the Eastern Slavs perceived this language as “their own” - the language of their church, the language of Orthodox education. This attitude persisted especially for a long time in Muscovite Rus' - until Peter’s reforms. N.S. Trubetskoy explained this by the uniqueness of Russian history: “The Church Slavic literary and linguistic tradition established itself and developed in Russia not so much because it was Slavic, but because it was church” (Trubetskoy 1990, 3, 132–134).
The contrast between cult and folk languages determined not only the main features of linguistic situations in many lands over the centuries, but also the uniqueness of new (folk) literary languages. For example, the history of the literary Russian language can be understood as a history of confrontation and interaction between Church Slavonic (South Slavic) and folk (East Slavic, later Russian proper) linguistic elements. Until now, in literary Russian the main stylistic opposition remains the opposition of borrowed Church Slavonic and original linguistic elements (extract - drag out, fence - fence, etc.).
Confessional factors in social history languages
Despite the fact that the religions of Scripture are wary of translations of the canon, such translations are still created (though sometimes only for part of the canonical texts or for non-liturgical reading). Translations of confessional books became major events in the social history of many languages: alphabets were created or significantly transformed, the dictionary expanded sharply, new syntactic constructions and new types of speech were developed - allegorical, abstract-philosophical, expressive-metaphorical.
The Christianization of Europe, considered in the aspect of language (i.e., as a process of dissemination of holy books and worship in a particular language), followed two main models: 1) the adoption of a new religion in a language that requires constant translation for mass consciousness believers (like Latin among the Romance and especially Germanic peoples); 2) Christianization in the native (or close, not requiring translation) language: like the Armenian language from the beginning of the Armenian church in. 30 1 year; Old Church Slavonic language, thanks to the mission of Sts. Cyril and Methodius 863, in Slavic worship.
The cultural consequences of accepting Scripture in a foreign language or in one's own language would seem to be different. However, the judgments about what these consequences are are exactly the opposite. G.G. Shpet ("Essay on the development of Russian philosophy", 1922) and G.P. Fedotov ("The Tragedy of the Intelligentsia", 1928) considered the case of Sts. Cyril and Methodius by a careless mistake: the translation of Scripture obscured the original, eliminating the inevitability of knowledge of the Greek language (unlike Western Europe, which was forced to know Latin). Therefore, the Slavic language of the church led to the separation of the Slavs from the classical culture of the Greek language. The majority of researchers hold the opposite opinion. So, G.V. Florovsky called the thesis that Rus' received from Byzantium “only the Bible,” just “one book,” an irresponsible hyperbole. Translating the Bible is always a “shift and feat” in the people’s destiny; the translation process itself is at the same time the “becoming of a translator,” i.e., the creation of liturgy and the Bible in the Slavic language was the process of developing a new Christian spirituality of the Slavs. (Florovsky 1981, 6).
Translations of Scripture often became the material and linguistic basis of a supra-dialectal (national) literary language.
For example, the German translation of the New Testament by Martin Luther (1522; 72 editions only until 1558) became such a unifying text; the famous six-volume Kralice Bible of the “Czech brothers” (1579–1593); Serbo-Croatian New Testament Vuk Karadzic (1847). In their respective cultures, these texts were not the first translations of Scripture, but due to the authority of their creators and stylistic perfection, they served as a model of correct (literary) speech, a linguistic tuning fork for grammars and dictionaries.
Religious prerequisites for the first functional-stylistic oppositions
An appeal to higher powers required speech that was different from everyday speech, intelligible to these forces. A conspiracy, a spell, a prayer, a taboo - in their origins, all this is verbal magic, that is, the desire to influence the world with the help of the transcendental possibilities of the word. By attributing such capabilities to certain linguistic means and developing forms of speech that differ from everyday speech, religious consciousness increases the semiotic capacity of language and text.
Hierarchy of confessional genres and its influence on written culture
In cultures professing the religion of Scripture, confessional needs shape writing as a certain hierarchy of texts - with unequal significance different groups texts, with different requirements for their use and distribution, with different degrees of permissibility of translation into another language, retelling or adaptation.
For example, in Judaism, the religious canon is formed only by the books of the Old Testament (unlike Christianity, in which both the Old and New Testaments are recognized as sacred) and the Talmud (a set of religious treatises created as an interpretation of the Old Testament); V Old Testament The first five books (the Pentateuch of Moses, or the Torah in the Jewish tradition) are considered especially important. Until now, in the synagogue the Torah is read only from the text written by hand on a parchment scroll.
Among Muslims, the main cult book - the Koran - is understood as the uncreated, eternal Word of God, which Allah (who speaks in the Koran in the first person) seemed to dictate to the Prophet Muhammad. At the next level in the hierarchy of confessional texts are hadiths - legends about the actions and sayings of Muhammad, and there are six major and many minor collections of hadiths. The next most important texts are the oldest theological commentaries on the Koran.
The hierarchy of genres in Orthodox medieval literature can be represented according to the systematization of N.I. Tolstoy (see: Tolstoy 1988, 69–70).
I. CONFESSIONAL LITERATURE
1. Liturgical (i.e., used in worship - missals, missals, books of hours, menaions, octoechos, triodions, etc.)
2. Canonical (Holy Scripture)
2.1. "Psalter" (book from the Old Testament), "Apostle" (book Orthodox Church, including the New Testament books of Acts and the Epistles of the Apostles)
2.2. Gospel, books of the Old Testament
3. Homiletical, i.e. preaching (including teaching gospels)
4. Hagiographical (lives of saints)
5. Didactic (catechisms)
II. CONFESSIONAL AND SECULAR LITERATURE
1. Church oratorical
III. SECULAR LITERATURE
Confessional needs as a primary source of philology
The unconventional perception of a sign by religious consciousness, the belief that “the word will make it happen,” that only through the “correct” books can one be “saved,” creates an atmosphere of people’s constant attention to language. In cultures professing one or another religion of the Scriptures, confessional needs form a philological tradition. Philology in its origins was the service of preserving sacred text: it was required to preserve and transmit it unchanged (in oral or written form).
For example, Islam still does not allow the translation of the Koran in worship, and in mosques all over the world (Arabs, Turks, Iran, Africa, India, Central and Southeast Asia, the USA, Canada) the Koran is read only in the Arabic original, with This canonicity of pronunciation is given a sacred (magical) meaning. For centuries, children in Muslim schools have memorized the Qur'an. After the canonization of the Koran (7th century), its language (classical Arabic) became increasingly distant from living folk languages, so ritual pronunciation had to be specially taught. There was a need for a thorough description of the spoken speech. Already by the 8th century. Arab phoneticians achieved outstanding results: they described in detail the work of the tongue, lips, mouth and nose in pronouncing each sound; created comprehensive classifications of phonetic changes; systematized the variants of sound types (calling them “branches”), in which historians of linguistics see the beginnings of phonology.
The semantic side of Scripture also required philological concerns. For an unambiguous understanding of the Koran, it was necessary to create extensive commentaries and develop principles for its interpretation. Thus, the linguistic aspects of confessional activity determined the emergence of a philological tradition in Arab-Muslim culture.
In Christian book and written traditions, in order to ensure a certain level of understanding of the text (however, different for clergy and laity), commentaries were compiled on the texts. Real-historical (“external”) commentary was called exegesis (Greek, exégétikós - “interpreting”); linguistic (“internal”) comments - interpretations of incomprehensible words and figures of speech - were called hermeneutics (Greek herméneutikós - clarifying). At first, interpretations of obscure words were made by copyists of sacred books in the margins or between the lines; such explanations were called glosses (Greek glṓssa - language, adverb).
Later, glosses began to be combined into collections of interpretations and glossaries. Gradually the circle of interpreted words expanded; their arrangement was ordered (alphabetically or thematically); interpretation techniques were improved; As a result, dictionaries were developed from glossaries.
The religions of Scripture recognized early on the problem of the authenticity of the text and its preservation in its original form. Scribes (in the biblical sense, i.e. “experts and interpreters of Scripture”) saw that different lists of sacred books differ from each other: they contain typos, accidental omissions, distortions, “dark” (incomprehensible) places; there are corrections and replacements that sometimes do not restore the original appearance of the text, but take away from it. For believers in the Revelation of God, such losses of sacred meanings seem extremely dangerous. Therefore, in the religions of Scripture, professional activity arises aimed at preserving sacred texts over time and interpreting what becomes incomprehensible over time. This was the beginning of philology as a public “service of understanding” (S.S. Averintsev).
Already in the 3rd century. n. e. Christian theologian and philosopher Origen (who lived in Alexandria and Palestine) carried out a systematic, grandiose comparison of different texts of the Bible. Six parallel columns included the Hebrew text, its Greek transliteration, and four different Greek translations of the text. All omissions, discrepancies and distortions of the text were consistently marked with special signs. A comparison of several versions of one text subsequently made it possible to reconstruct the text of the Bible as close as possible to its original form.
Origen's philological ideas and the very technique of his analysis received widespread and brilliant development in European humanism during the Renaissance and Reformation. Already with the beginning of book printing in Europe, so-called polyglots (Greek polys - many, numerous and glotta - language) - biblical texts in several languages at once, in parallel columns, like Origen, were widely published. For example, in the 10-volume Parisian polyglot 1629–1645. The biblical text was printed in Hebrew, Greek (Septuagint), Latin (Vulgate), Syriac, Arabic, Samaritan and Aramaic, as well as Latin translations of all versions.
Historical and biographical excursion: Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469–1536) as a philologist
The ruler of the thoughts of his era, the recognized head of European humanists, several centuries later Erasmus of Rotterdam is known to the general public primarily as the author of witty satirical books - “In Praise of Stupidity” and “Easy Conversations”. However, its true meaning is deeper. Erasmus laid the foundations of a new, humanistic theology, built on the foundation of a thorough philological study of the most ancient sources of Christianity. He devoted many years of his life to the study and publication of the Bible, as well as the writings of the Church Fathers.
In 1517, Erasmus published the Greek text of the New Testament, accompanied by an extensive commentary and a Latin translation. For this edition, he collated ten different manuscript texts of the New Testament and discovered hundreds of minor and major inaccuracies in the generally accepted reading and understanding that obscured its original meaning. Here is just one example given in a book about Erasmus by an expert on his work S.P. Markish:
The Greek word metanoeite was translated penitentiam agile, which could be understood in two ways: either as “repent (in your soul)” or as “do repentance (that is, fulfill the church penance imposed on you)”; official theology took precisely the second meaning. Erasmus proposed a more accurate Latin translation of the Greek word: as resipiscite, i.e. “come to your senses, think differently.” "The center of gravity turned out to be shifted from the sphere of the conciliar, church, i.e. public, to the personal; the most important element of faith - repentance - was transformed from an external, strictly regulated action into a matter of everyone's conscience. This shift alone played an extremely important role in the preparation of the Reformation" (Markish 1981, 123–124).
In 1519, Erasmus published a new, significantly revised Latin translation of the New Testament. He prepared for publication, partially commented on and published 9 volumes of the works of Blessed Jerome (the creator of the first Latin translation Bible - "Vulgates" in 405); Through the works of Erasmus, some other important works of early patristics were also published.
In addition to publishing Christian primary sources and authorities, Erasmus carried out carefully prepared editions of ancient authors - from Aesop and Aristotle to Seneca and Terence.
Erasmus showed practically - in editions of ancient monuments - what it means to understand a word spoken 15 centuries ago. He became the founder of that branch of philological research called text criticism or textual criticism. Textual analysis of a work, based on the study of its history, sources, and circumstances of creation, seeks to clear the text of the mistakes of copyists and publishers that have accumulated over the centuries, to understand the original meanings of words and to get closer to its original meaning. If a work has been preserved in several copies or versions (editions), then a textologist, preparing the monument for a scientific publication, examines the relationship between the lists and editions in order to understand as accurately as possible the composition of the text, the original meaning of what was written and the subsequent history of its changes (for details, see the classic work by D.S. Likhachev "Textology. On the material of Russian literature of the X–XVII centuries".
Religious origins of the first concepts of language
The earliest (known to science) concepts of language were part of the religious picture of the world. Despite the mythopoetic form, some of the most ancient ideas about language are strikingly consonant with modern ones.
For example, in the Vedas there is a story about the primary competition between the silent deity of pure reason and the goddess of speech; reason wins, but speech is recognized as a necessary support for the creative mind. The Christian philosophy of language affirmed the powerful creative power of the word: according to the Bible, the world came into being through the word: God spoke the word and this was an act of creation. The Bible proceeds from the predestination of the confusion of languages and at the same time strives to overcome language barriers. Originally the one and perfect (because from God) language of Adam; then (Genesis 11) the confusion and scattering of languages as punishment for human vanity during the “creation” of the “Pillar of Babylon” (“tower”); finally, the “redemption of tongues” - the miraculous “speaking in tongues”, given by the Holy Spirit to the multilingual apostles on Trinity Sunday (Acts) - these are the main milestones in the biblical history of languages.
In the Gospel of John, the Word (Greek Lógos - word, teaching) means the second person of the Trinity - Christ (Son of God). In one of the Orthodox works on language in this connection it is said: The Word is in man in the image of the Son of God, since the Son of God had two births, the first was born from the Father by some incomprehensible birth […], the second was born without passion, truly flesh [. .] For this reason, according to the special birth of the Son of God and our word, there is a special birth, since our word is born first from the soul by some incomprehensible birth and remains unknown to the soul. And again he is born by a second birth of the flesh, which comes forth through the mouth and manifests itself by voice in hearing (Conversation on teaching literacy; quoted (with graphic simplifications) according to the publication: Yagich 1885–1895, 675–676). This means, according to the writer’s thoughts, the word, like Christ, is “twofold” - spiritually and physically, and the spiritual essence of the word is incomprehensible, just as the birth of Christ is incomprehensible. IN modern theory language, this thought is expressed in different terminology: in language there are two sides - meaning and form (variant terms: content plan and expression plan); At the same time, just as in the old days they talked about the incomprehensible birth of the Word from the soul, so in modern linguistics they often write about the special difficulty of studying semantics.
Despite the mythopoetic form, it is easy to see that religious consciousness raised the main questions of the philosophy of language (language and thought; form and content in language; the creative possibilities of language).
Thus, in cultures professing the religions of Scripture, religious needs act as a factor that not only develops the communicative capabilities of language, but also stimulates and deepens reflection on language. All this significantly increases the philological culture of society, and ultimately - the philological support of communication (and, of course, not only in the sphere of religious practice).
Collisions of the historical existence of sacred texts
Due to the unconventional perception of the sign in the religions of Scripture (see p.), two main linguistic questions of confessional practice arise here quite early: 1) the question of the “correctness” of the sacred text, i.e. the question of its authenticity to the “divinely inspired” primary source (see . below) and 2) the question of translation or other adaptation of the sacred text in a new or changed linguistic environment (see p.).
The Middle Ages and modern times approach these issues significantly differently. The fear of “deviation” into heresy due to purely grammatical corrections or even spelling errors (see p.,) is gradually being replaced by textual studies and scientific editions of individual manuscripts. On this basis, the codification of the corpus of texts of the religious canon of various faiths was carried out (see p.).
The attitude towards canonical texts as an unshakable shrine came into conflict with their actual existence for many centuries in a spontaneously changing multilingual space. The changing external conditions of confessional activity (in particular, a different or changed language of everyday communication between believers) brings the church to the need to to some extent bring confessional texts (or some of them) closer to the linguistic usage of the population. For this purpose, explanatory dictionaries of difficult words and expressions were created for some texts; other texts were commented on in an oral sermon or a specially created new text (this is the purpose of catechisms, “explanatory psalters,” “teaching gospels”); still others were translated or presented in understandable language.
Meanwhile, in the religions of Scripture, the question of translating canonical texts has always been difficult. The vital importance of language issues is evidenced by the experience of the history of religions: the translation of the religious canon into new languages often led not just to the spread of teaching, but to its development and modification; the very need for new translations and new interpretations of Scripture was usually both a manifestation and a factor of various heretical and dissident movements.
In the processes of secularization, the direction of dependencies in the relationship between confession and language gradually but radically changes - the confessional language is no longer included in the key oppositions of linguistic situations and is not able to significantly change them: folk literary languages become the main and most universal means of communication; Different confessions, to varying degrees, come to the need to adapt their confessional language to the current linguistic situation.
"Book correction" in the history of Orthodoxy
In Orthodox literature until the 18th century. (in Bulgaria, Serbia, Lithuanian and especially Muscovite Rus') the cult of fidelity to the original source of the sacred text was the psychological basis on which expensive and generally utopian attempts arose to correct liturgical books according to the ancient Greek and Church Slavonic models (“book references”). This work was carried out constantly, reaching particular intensity in some years. Such is the archaizing reform of Church Slavonic writing by the Bulgarian Patriarch Euthymius of Tarnovo (XIV century); in Rus' - under Metropolitan Cyprian at the end of the 14th century, in the first half and middle of the 16th century; at the beginning of the 17th century; finally, the famous “Nikonova on the right” (in the 50s of the 17th century under Patriarch Nikon), which became one of the reasons for the schism of the Russian Church. As N.I. wrote Tolstoy, “book correction”, “which worried […] almost all social strata of the Russian people”, was elevated in Rus' “to a matter of the highest national importance […]. Hardly ever before in Rus' have philological questions been perceived as so significant and posed so acutely" (Tolstoy 1963, 33).
The inviolability of liturgical books was protected by law. Stoglav (a set of church laws adopted in 1551; contained 100 chapters) required that each new book be checked against a good original and that faulty books be confiscated. One old manual on spelling ends with a warning: “Behold the reprimand is terrible: if anyone writes a book and brings it to the council without correcting it, let him be damned” (quoted from the publication: Yagich 1885–1895, 722).
The Byzantine scribe Maxim the Greek, honorably invited under Vasily III (16th century) to help translate church books, was declared a heretic on charges of incorrectly correcting them, tried, twice cursed, and spent most of his life in monastic prisons. One of the points of accusation was that Maxim replaced one of the past tenses (aorist) with another past tense (perfect). Maxim’s guilt was seen in the fact that with such a choice of verb tenses, he spoke of Christ as transitory, temporary, and not as eternal. Mikhail Medovartsev, Maxim’s assistant, who edited the text based on Maxim’s notes in the margins, said at the trial: “I smoothed out two lines, but I hesitated to smooth it out... I can’t smooth it out, a great trembling caught me and horror attacked me.” These words allow you to imagine how acutely I felt medieval man even involuntary distortions of the sacred text.
When the investigators of Patriarch Nikon in the formula in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit excluded the first union and (it became in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit), the Old Believers saw in this a heretical interpretation of the relationship between God the Father and God the Son: “So already they sing blasphemously, merging the Father and the Son into one person (and this is the harm of Saveli’s rottenness).”
In the slightest deviation from ancient sources they could see a deep theological meaning, in a synonymous substitution - heresy, in a violation of spelling - a departure from Orthodoxy. All this is a manifestation of the unconventional interpretation of the sign in the sacred text, characteristic of the religions of Scripture (see p.).
Vernacular Languages in Biblical Translations and Liturgy
Orthodox Slavs. Saints Cyril and Methodius, having created the Slavic liturgy and Slavic translations of part of the canonical books in 863, resolved the language issue in the church of the Bulgarians, Serbs, Montenegrins and Eastern Slavs(i.e. in the world of Slavia Orthodoxa, among the Orthodox Slavs). For a long time, the supra-ethnic Church Slavonic language was perceived as “one’s own” sacred language - the language of Scripture, the church and red-hot culture. It was quite understandable to the Slavs and did not require translation.
However, as a result of the natural divergence of living Slavic languages, over time there arose a need for translations of Scripture - this is evidenced by the very facts of the appearance of such texts in folk languages. At the same time, the matter is not only in the incomprehensibility of the Church Slavonic language. Translations of Scripture were associated with the search for ethno-religious self-determination. They arose under the influence of the Protestant practice of translating Scripture, sometimes in response to this practice (see p.). In 1551–1561 in Volyn translated into Ukrainian language Peresopnytsia Gospel; in the 1570s Polotsk nobleman Socinian Vasily Tyapinsky in his printing house printed the Gospel of Matthew in two languages: Church Slavonic and in his translation into Belarusian; more than a century later, in 1683, in Moscow, the translator of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, Abrahamy Firsov, translated the Psalter into Russian from Polish. However, these translations were not sanctioned by Orthodoxy. Nevertheless, translations of Scripture in Slavia Orthodoxa continued to be created. In 1820 the New Testament was printed in Bulgarian; in 1840 - the complete Bible in Bulgarian. In 1847, the New Testament was published in Serbian; in 1868 - the complete Serbian Bible.
In Russia, the complete Bible in Russian was published in 1876. Until 1858, the Russian Orthodox Church suppressed all attempts to translate Scripture into Russian. In 1826, the Russian Bible Society (founded in 1812), associated with the British and German Bible societies for the translation and dissemination of Scripture. In 1825, professor of the St. Petersburg Theological Academy G.P. Pavsky translated several books of the Old Testament. However, printing was interrupted, and copies of the Pentateuch were burned. Another translator of the Old Testament, Archimandrite Macarius (d. 1847), was subject to a church penalty. In 1863, the Ukrainian translation of the Bible, prepared by the famous liberal historian N.I., was banned. Kostomarov. When in 1858 the Holy Synod officially allowed work on the translation to begin, it firmly pointed out the inadmissibility of the Russian translation in the church: “The translation is useful, but not for use in churches, for which the Slavic text should remain inviolable, but for a manual only.” to the understanding of Holy Scripture" [i.e. i.e. outside of worship].
In the Russian Orthodox Church, including in the Belarusian Exarchate, worship is still possible only in Church Slavonic. The Belarusian Orthodox translation being created is intended “for use during worship.” Preaching in vernacular languages has been around for a long time. The question of the Russian and Belarusian languages is not raised in the liturgy.
Catholics. Even the Council of Tours (813) allowed preaching in vernacular languages (instead of Latin). In the XV–XVI centuries. Under the influence of the ideas of humanism and partly in response to the challenge of the Reformation, translations of Scripture into vernacular languages were spreading in Catholic countries. Divine services, however, were still performed in Latin for a long time (the vernacular languages were spoken mainly in the sermon, and in a number of countries also in the Gospel readings and prayers). Second Vatican Council(1962–1965), proclaiming the general course of Agiornamento (Italian aggiomamentó - modernization), allowed services in vernacular languages.
Protestants. The Reformation, like humanism (in the historical sense of the word, see page), was largely a philological movement in the nature of its thinking. Even the Hussites, and then Luther, along with the most important anti-papal slogans, put forward demands regarding language: the Bible in their native language; accessibility of the Bible to the laity, including women; independent (without the mediation of the church) reading and understanding of the Bible by believers; high church significance of the sermon. In comparison with others Christian churches, Protestantism to the greatest extent allows for the convergence of confessional and secular languages. Therefore, Protestant worship has always been based on vernacular languages. Protestants contributed most to the translation of Scripture into vernacular languages. Already in the Hussite pre-printing era, the first complete biblical compendium in the Czech language appeared (1410–1416). In the 16th century The New Testament or the complete Bible was translated into all languages of Protestant Europe, including in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Belarusian and Ukrainian.
Uniates. Church union (from the Latin unio - “unity”) is widespread in European, Asian and African lands bordering Catholicism and other Christian denominations - in Ukraine, Belarus, Iraq, India (there are two Uniate churches), Ethiopia, Egypt, as well as in the USA. Unions developed as fundamentally dual confessions, combining some of the principles of Catholicism and their own traditional Christian rituals and their own language. Everywhere, Uniatism was a means of self-preservation for certain cultural and religious worlds. Union overcomes the interpretation of a certain border world as a world of marginal, “intermediate” or “weakened” version of the neighboring “main” world. Therefore, the union contributes to the self-determination of the Uniate world as an independent and individual ethnocultural and religious community.
In Belarus and Ukraine, union as a cultural and religious trend both chronologically and meaningfully goes beyond the framework of those processes that were determined by the acts of the Union of Brest in 1596, the Polotsk Uniate Council of 1839 or the Lvov Uniate Council of 1946 on “reunification” with the Russian Orthodox Church. Church. In the educational and literary practice of Frantisek Skorina, Lavrentiy Zizaniya, Meletiy Smotrytsky, Peter Mogila, Kirill Tranquilion Stavrovetsky, Kasian Sakovich, regardless of their formal religious affiliation, there is a certain similarity due to the formation of the Belarusian and Ukrainian ethno-linguistic and cultural-religious mentality and a significant softening differences between the Polish-Catholic and Moscow-Orthodox worlds. In relation to language, this manifested itself in the desacralization of the cult language, in linguistic pluralism, in the readiness for change and for greater consideration of the “interests of the listener” - up to the creation of liturgy in the vernacular language.
So, different confessions, to varying degrees, allow the translation of texts of the religious canon into new languages. These differences can be stated; Apparently, they can be characterized in terms such as “traditionality”, “degree of adaptability”, “dynamism”, “irrationality”, “mysticism”, “rationality”, etc., but it is important to exclude evaluative and polemical judgments. In matters of faith, “rationalism” is no better or worse than “mysticism”; What one person sees as “astonishing conservatism” will seem to another “reliable stability”, “loyalty to one’s roots, origins.” Any “advice from an outsider” (“how to organize their faith”) would be inappropriate here, and assessments would be unethical.
How to find a measure in the “modernization” of religious tradition? What and how to translate? Should a word that is not completely clear always be replaced by a generally known one? Any such questions are an internal matter of the confessions themselves as organizations of believers. A practice that uses religion as a lever in national-linguistic or other politics is just as vicious as a practice for which national-linguistic problems are only arguments in religious propaganda. "Render therefore to Caesar what is Caesar's, and God's God"(Matt. 22:21).
Islam in the modern world Religion Islam. History of the emergence of Islam. The Koran and its role in the life of Muslims. Directions of Islam. Sunnism. Shiism. Geography of Islam in the modern world. Islam in Russia. Islam today. Many Muslims live in the North Caucasus. Heading: Religion and mythology View: abstract Language : Russian Date added: 10/12/2004 File size: 13.7 K Full information about the work You can download the work here Find another work on this topic Submit your...
2935 Words |
12 Page
abstract religion SCIENCES OF UKRAINE NATIONAL VISCHIY INITIAL MOUNT "DONETSK NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY" ABSTRACT RELIGIONS ON THE TOPIC: “RELIGION CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about religion
civilization…………………………………5 3. The main gods of the Maya………………………………………………………..7 4. Patron deities professions……………………………………………………10...
2053 Words |
9 Page Religion Christianity i) Apostolic Epistles. 4. Adoption of Christianity in Rus'. III. Conclusion. 1. Christianity and the life of modern people IV. Bibliography. CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about , which is closest to me. I myself am a Christian and I think I should know at least the most important things about Christianity.
After all, it is impossible to know everything about Christianity, just as it is impossible to say that everything I tell you about...
3212 Words |
13 Page Essay | |Bank Essay abstracts contains more than 377 thousand , term papers and diploma papers, cheat sheets and reports on various disciplines: history, psychology, economics, management, philosophy, law, ecology. As well as presentations, essays on literature, reports on practice, topics in English. | | | |www.Referatik.Ru - Diplomas, Coursework and
Abstracts
to order! ...
2808 Words | 12 Page abstract Europe. In the 10th century, Rus' adopted a new i) Apostolic Epistles. religion
, which for many centuries will become the worldview of society, covering all spheres of its life. Before
Historians have always asked questions: what was the reason for the Christianization of Russia and why did Prince Vladimir choose Orthodoxy? The answer to these questions should be sought both in the personality of Prince Vladimir and in the analysis of the socio-political and spiritual processes that took place at that time in Kievan Rus. The purpose of writing
is to study the process of adoption by Russia... 3610 Words | 15 Page Religion as a symbolic system CONTENTS Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..……3 1. Basic symbols religions
…………………………………………………....4 2.Rituals and myths - elements
symbolic system……………………….7 3.Religious worldview and religious ethnicity………………………….13 Conclusion…………………………………………… ………………………...16 List of references.................................... ...................................17 Introduction In my opinion, this topic is relevant, because
religion , term papers and diploma papers, cheat sheets and reports on various - is a system of beliefs, cult and religious implementers... 3788 Words | Essay 16 Page Abstract Culture of Ancient India http://www.referatik.ru/ - Diplomas, Coursework and SCIENCES OF UKRAINE NATIONAL VISCHIY INITIAL MOUNT "DONETSK NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY" to order! Tel 772-34-33 No prepayment, Individual, Inexpensive and Not Internet! Moscow
Read more Start of form Example: Political communication I'm looking for: End of form All topics
/ Art /
Essay CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about : Culture of Ancient India 1. MOSCOW HUMANITIES AND ECONOMICS INSTITUTE KALUGA BRANCH CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about 1st year student of the YuZVS-97 group Vasily Viktorovich Polyakov Culturology: "Culture of Ancient India" ... CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about ……………………………..……...5 1.3 The essence and functions of culture……………………………………..10 Chapter 2. Buddhism…………… …………………………………………….13 2.1 Architecture…………………………………………………………………….……........ .13 2.2 Painting….…………………………………………………………....……….15 2.3 Literature…………………………………………………………… …………………....17 Chapter 3. Christianity……………………………………………………………...19 ...
7976 Words |
32 Page
Abstract Culture of Ancient India abstract sociology Civilization approach to the typology of society (theories of N.Ya. Danilevsky, A. Toynbee, O. Spengler). Table of contents
INTRODUCTION 2 1. The concept of “civilization” 2 2. Civilizational approach to the typology of society 2 3. Theory of cultural-historical types N.Ya. Danilevsky 2 4. Great cultures in the theory of O. Spengler 2 5. The theory of the cycle of civilizations by A. Toynbee 2 CONCLUSION 2 REFERENCES 2 INTRODUCTION Currently, most peoples, having reached a certain level...
2216 Words |
9 Page __PROGRAM for the course SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION MAN CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about state autonomous educational institution of higher professional education "National Research University" Higher School Economics" Faculty of Humanities, School of Cultural Studies Discipline program "Sociology"» for direction 031400.62 “Cultural studies” for bachelor’s training Author of the program: Malinkin A.N., Ph.D. Sc., Associate Professor, School of Cultural Studies, Faculty of Humanities, National Research University Higher School of Economics,
[email protected]
Approved at a meeting of the School of Cultural Studies “___”____________...
Abstract Culture of Ancient India 6060 Words | Religion 25 Page Religion and Morality Abstract Culture of Ancient India on the topic of: " CONTENTS Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..……3 1. Basic symbols and morality" Completed by: 1st year student of group 245 Scientific supervisor: CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about Moscow 2012 in philosophy. Outline: 1) Introduction 2) What is ?
3) World
/ Art /
4) What is morality? CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about 5) Differences and similarities between CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about religion Religion and morality 6) Conclusion 7) References 1. Introduction: People are divided into two large categories: atheists and believers. Unfortunately, there are also people who... 3033 Words | 13 Page Essence Religion 1. Role Religion in people's lives………………………………………………………. 2. And CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about 2...
science…………………………………………………….. 3.
Abstract Culture of Ancient India Religious faith four thousand small islands stretching in an arc of 3.5 thousand km. from northeast to southwest along the east coast of Asia. The largest islands are Honshu, Hokaido, Kyushu and Shikoku. The shores of the archipelago are heavily indented and form many bays and bays. The seas and oceans surrounding Japan are of exceptional importance for the country as a source of biological, mineral and...
1054 Words |
5 Page
Immortality and religions Contents 1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………….3 2. Immortality in the world religions …………………………………………………………………….5 1) Immortality in
ancient Egypt…………………………………………..…….5 2) Immortality in ancient Greece……………………………………………………………….. 6 3) Immortality in Hinduism……………………………………………………..………8 4) Immortality in Buddhism…………………………………… ……………………..10 5) Immortality in Judaism……………………………………………………………..10 6) Immortality in Christianity………… …………………………………………..11 7) Immortality in Islam…………………………………………………………….. .
3212 Words |
3812 Words | 16 Page connection with the Universe. This feeling is often unexpected and occurs when we see a work of art, listen to music or poetry. Imagination. Art provides a way to use imagination in a non-verbal way, without the restrictions imposed
tongue
. While words follow a strict sequence and each of them has some specific meaning, art provides a wide range of forms, symbols and ideas, the meaning of which can be interpreted in different ways. Appeal to unlimited...
586 Words | 3 Page CONTENTS Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..……3 1. Basic symbols Symbol in art, science, religion
PAGEREF _Toc419855007 \h 3Semiotics: history of development. Signs and symbols. PAGEREF _Toc419855008 \h 4Symbolic concepts PAGEREF _Toc419855009 \h 8About symbols
in art PAGEREF _Toc419855010 \h 10Science and symbols PAGEREF _Toc419855011 \h 14Symbols and
PAGEREF _Toc419855012 \h 16Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc419855013 \h 18References: PAGEREF _Toc419855014 \h 19 IntroductionSigns and symbols play a huge role in culture. Symbols are an expression of culture. Through symbols, unconscious meanings are revealed... 3647 Words | 15 Page History of the origin of the Latin language Help CategoriesForeign languages abstract History of the origin of Latin Abstract Culture of Ancient India language History of the origin of the Latin language ». ...
Received date: June 06, 2013 at 21:03 Author
work: s*******@yandex.ru Type:
Department of Education of the District Administration of the City District "Yakutsk City" MOU "Physical and Technical Lyceum named after. V. P. Larionov" Abstract Culture of Ancient India in social studies on the topic: BUDDHISM AS ONE OF THE THREE WORLDS RELIGIONS . Completed by: student of grade 10 “b” Kondratieva Sardaana Supervisor: Efremova T. P. Reviewer: Petrova I. P. Yakutsk 2011 Contents Introduction……………………………………………………………………………… …………………………..…….3-4 CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF THE ARISE OF BUDDHISM……………………………..5-8 1.1 Where and when did Buddhism arise. ..
6522 Words |
/ Art /
27 Page Abstract Culture of Ancient India University (VolgSTU) Faculty of Economics and Management Department of History, Culture and Sociology in cultural studies at Religion topic Religion as a form of culture Completed by: Abalentsev A.S. Volgograd 2011 CONTENTS Introduction Religious faith in the lives of scientists Religion in primitive cultures Epistemological foundations of the transition from polytheism to monotheism
in European culture: the Christian model of the world and the problem of the relationship between faith and reason Conclusion Literature...
2889 Words |
Religion 12 Page religion as the basis of ancient culture CONTENTS Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..……3 1. Basic symbols as the basis of ancient culture Taking as the initial point of view that culture is everything that is created by man, his “second Religion nature”, we must determine for ourselves whether an element of culture, or is it, as theologians claim, the result of “divine revelation”? as a system of beliefs, cult and religious institutions that implement it, of course, is a product of the human mind and human activity, therefore in this
abstract
it will be considered as a phenomenon... 2717 Words | 11 Page 2717 Words | INTRODUCTION 3 CONCEPT RELIGIONS
4 FUNCTIONS
Abstract Culture of Ancient India AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTE 15 CONCLUSION 25 REFERENCES 26 INTRODUCTION The main question for every person has always been and remains the question of the meaning of life. Not everyone can find a final answer for themselves, not everyone is able to sufficiently substantiate it. But in every normal person there is an ineradicable need to find this meaning and its reasonable justification. Modern man is surrounded by a large number of different faiths... Religion 4) Language 5078 Words |
21 Page
on the topic: Egypt Country of the Pyramids Completed by: Student of group K-164 Denis Skorobogatov Checked by: Geography teacher Elena Uzhametskaya
Abstract Culture of Ancient India For the discipline HISTORY (name of the academic discipline according to the curriculum) Topic: Prince Vladimir and the problem of choice CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about Contents Introduction. 3 1. Prince Vladimir before baptism: his life, activities, ideas 4 1.1. The beginning of the reign 4 1.2. Paganism of the Slavs. The first stage of religious reform in Vladimir. 7 1.3. Reasons for accepting Christianity. 9 2. Baptism of Prince Vladimir and his people. 13 2.1. Personal baptism of Vladimir. 13 2.2. Baptism of Rus' 17 2.3. Results and consequences...
6567 Words |
to order! ...
27 Page SCIENCES OF UKRAINE NATIONAL VISCHIY INITIAL MOUNT "DONETSK NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY" Department of National History named after A. V. Arsenyeva in civics on the topic: “The role of the religious factor in the formation in philosophy. Outline: 1) Introduction 2) What is patriotism of the Russian people" Completed by a student of group M-36-1-15 Checked: Cheboksary 2015 Contents Introduction 1. Patriotism as the most important emotional and moral aspect of a person’s worldview. 2. Two points of view regarding the role of Orthodoxy in the development of the Russian state. 3. The connection between patriotism and
. Conclusion Literature Introduction Patriotism is a multifaceted...
3841 Words |
16 Page Religion non-traditional, non-denominational religions CONTENTS Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..……3 1. Basic symbols ) is the brightest feature of the twentieth century. Modern God-seeking manifests itself in everyone 3610 Words | continents in many forms, its diversity is fantastic. This “epidemic” of non-traditional religiosity, on the one hand, causes a lot of attacks and criticism, on the other, it finds a considerable number of adherents and admirers. Word "
"is familiar to all of us from childhood and was associated with Christianity. But now there has been such a development of non-traditional
that you can get lost in their names...
5561 Words | SCIENCES OF UKRAINE NATIONAL VISCHIY INITIAL MOUNT "DONETSK NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY" 23 Page Hospitality essay Abstract Culture of Ancient India Department of Tourism and Social and Cultural Services Culture and traditions of Spanish hospitality
by discipline (specialization)
3212 Words |
“Hospitality of the Peoples of the World” Checked, Assoc. 3647 Words | O.V. Maksimova ____________________ 2017 Author of the work (project) student of group STZ-153 Roo Valeria Vladimirovna 01/23/2017 protected with assessment ____________________2017 Chelyabinsk 2017... Religion 4242 Words |
17 Page
Government regulation, Customs, Taxes Legislation and law Foreign
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation Branch of the Federal State Budgetary educational institution higher professional Education "National Research Tomsk State University" in Yurga SCIENCES OF UKRAINE NATIONAL VISCHIY INITIAL MOUNT "DONETSK NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY" in cultural studies On the topic: “Consciousness, its specificity, levels.” Completed by: ___________________ Checked by: _________________ Yurga 2014 Plan: Introduction 1. Ordinary and theoretical consciousness 2. Social psychology and ideology 3...
2230 Words |
9 Page Abstract Culture of Ancient India university CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about on the topic: “Versions of origin . CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about Causes CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about occurrence and function CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about "
Completed: Chelyabinsk 2013 Versions of origin
Abstract Culture of Ancient India Two main approaches to the question of origin are widely known and accepted in religious studies. i) Apostolic Epistles. : religious (theological) and secular (religious studies)... CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about 2780 Words |
12 Page
on the topic: “The Baptism of Rus'.” Nizhny Novgorod 2011 Plan
: 1. Introduction. 2. Baptism of Rus': 1) Reasons for the baptism of Rus'. 2) Baptism of Vladimir. Abstract Culture of Ancient India 3) Formation of a local Russian church. CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about 4) Historical significance. 3. Conclusion.
4. List of references.
1. Introduction. Christianity existed in Ancient Rus' long before it was given official status.
, But... SCIENCES OF UKRAINE NATIONAL VISCHIY INITIAL MOUNT "DONETSK NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY" 4516 Words | 19 Page i) Apostolic Epistles. "World religions: Christianity, Buddhism, Islam."
COOPERATIVE TECHNIQUE OF THE MURMANSK REGIONAL POTS UNION
to order! ...
"World Abstract Culture of Ancient India : Christianity, Buddhism, Islam." Performed 1st year student of group Yu-41 Salnikova Valeria Olegovna. Checked by Alexander Petrovich Shamakhin Rating: _____________ Murmansk, 2009 Contents. |Contents……………………………………………………………. |Page 2 | |Introduction…………………………………………………………….. ... i) Apostolic Epistles. 2804 Words |
12 Page
Abstract Culturology
MINISTRY OF COMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION HIGHER STATE COLLEGE OF COMMUNICATIONS SCIENCES OF UKRAINE NATIONAL VISCHIY INITIAL MOUNT "DONETSK NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY" BY DISCIPLINE “FUNDAMENTALS OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY” TOPIC: Worldview is a generalized system of a person’s views on the world as a whole, his place in it, a person’s understanding and assessment of the meaning of his activities and the destinies of humanity, a set of scientific, philosophical, political, legal, moral, aesthetic, religious beliefs and ideals of people.
Peculiarities of worldview:...
2434 Words |
10 Page Abstract Culture of Ancient India Machiavelli essay history of state and law Political and legal doctrine of Niccolo Machiavelli CONTENTS Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..……3 1. Basic symbols Daria Sergeevna Chepina, 3rd year student, 5 abstract groups, specialty “legislation” Scientific supervisor: Fironov Anatoly Nikolaevich Minsk, 2015 Contents Introduction 3 State and power 4 Politics and
. 7 Army and military affairs 8 Qualities of people and sovereigns 9 Conclusion 12 References 13 Introduction This
is a detailed presentation of the socio-political views of the Italian...
9 Page SCIENCES OF UKRAINE NATIONAL VISCHIY INITIAL MOUNT "DONETSK NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY" 3148 Words | CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about 13 Page Religion The influence of religion on the development of science in the Middle Ages
in the discipline “History and methodology of science and chemical technology” on the topic: Influence
on the development of science in the Middle Ages Completed by: st.gr. 410-M1 Khanova A.G.
Checked by: Rusanova Svetlana Nikolaevna Kazan 2011 CONTENTS Introduction 1. and science... Abstract Culture of Ancient India 2898 Words |
12 Page
Abstract on sects Abstract Culture of Ancient India EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION "MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY OF CULTURE AND ARTS" Institute of Cultural Studies and Museology Department of History, Cultural History and Museology (Department: Cultural Studies) CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about on the topic: Sect "Movement for the Revival of the Ten Commandments of God" Performer: Vladimirova D.A. Student group: 13118(o) Moscow 2012 Contents: 1) Introduction 2) The concept of a totalitarian sect 3) Signs of a totalitarian sect 4) History of education...
2030 Words |
9 Page
ORYOL STATE UNIVERSITY named after. I.S. Turgenev Department of Sociology, Cultural Studies and Political Science Abstract Culture of Ancient India On the topic of: Religion "The relationship between art and : history and modernity" Option No. 17 Completed by: student of group 21-IK Nazartsev Roman Yuryevich Checked by teacher: Borisova Yulia Nikolaevna Mark on the test... 4890 Words | 20 Page CONTENTS Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..……3 1. Basic symbols . The thousand hymns of the Rigveda, as well as later monuments of Vedic literature, provide rich material for judgments about the nature of the religious beliefs of the Aryans. Comparison with the mythology of other peoples sometimes shows the distant Indo-European origins of the Vedic CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about . The Vedas show particular closeness to CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about and the culture of the Ancient...
2577 Words |
11 Page
Development of the modern Buryat language Abstract Culture of Ancient India State University History of the origin of the Latin language topic: Development of modern Buryat Completed by: Checked by: Makarova O.G. Ulan-Ude 2010 Introduction Buryat Completed by: Checked by: Makarova O.G. language Completed by: Checked by: Makarova O.G. (Buryat-Mongolian connection with the Universe. This feeling is often unexpected and occurs when we see a work of art, listen to music or poetry. , self-name Buryaad Helen) - Buryat. One of the two (together with the Russian ) government Completed by: Checked by: Makarova O.G. languages Completed by: Checked by: Makarova O.G. Republic of Buryatia. Previously called Buryat-Mongolian
. After the renaming of the Buryat-Mongolian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1923) into the Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1956)
SCIENCES OF UKRAINE NATIONAL VISCHIY INITIAL MOUNT "DONETSK NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY" received the name Buryat... 2040 Words |
9 Page
ON THE TOPIC: “Islam: creed and cult” ON THE COURSE: “Cults and occultism”
2011 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 3 1. WHAT IS A CULT? CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE CULT 4 2. ORIGIN OF ISLAM 7 3. FEATURES OF BELIEF AND CULT…………………………….10 4. DIRECTIONS OF ISLAM..…………………………………………………………… …….14 CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………15 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……................ ........................................................ .....................16 ... CONTENTS Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..……3 1. Basic symbols 3116 Words | CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about 13 Page philosophy of religion CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about Contents: Introduction Chapter 1. Concept of the phenomenon i) Apostolic Epistles. Chapter 2. Structure of the phenomenon Chapter 3. Dialectics
Chapter 4.
Contemporary issues
Conclusion Literature used Introduction Philosophy in any phenomenon studies the whole variety of properties, both in terms of the medium and in terms of generality. 3610 Words | For your I chose this particular topic because I think it is quite relevant in our time and I am no less sure that it was so many centuries ago. In our... 2854 Words | 12 Page an element of culture, or is it, as theologians claim, the result of “divine revelation”? Culturology Abstract in philosophy. Outline: 1) Introduction 2) What is the birth of all world
) for a whole month and having traveled to all the famous and little-known places in those territories, my knowledge on this topic is extensive.
Having visited in person, I can tell everything in a more accessible way.
Abstract Culture of Ancient India language , compared to textbooks, electronic media and other literature. In my We will look at the various features of the culture of Islam and what they are, where they come from and what their principles are. Islam is the second largest and most important Completed by: Checked by: Makarova O.G. on the territory of modern... 4135 Words | History of the origin of the Latin language 17 Page Completed by: Checked by: Makarova O.G. the end of the 20th century 3. The development trend of Russian literary History of the origin of the Latin language in the 20th century Conclusion List of references Introduction B Lately a number of linguistic works have appeared devoted to the study of the state of Russian History of the origin of the Latin language at the end of the 20th century and the changes taking place in it. The authors of these...
3223 Words |
13 Page
Psychoanalysis and religion Abstract Culture of Ancient India Psychology faculty CONTENTS Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..……3 1. Basic symbols Topic: Psychoanalysis and . Completed by: 1st year student of group 181 Scientific supervisor: Religion Lifintseva T.P. Moscow, 2009 Contents: Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..…3 1. Z. Freud. Brief biography……………………………………………………....…..4 2. Psychoanalysis - what is it?…………………………………………. .……….…....4 3. CIVILIZATIONS OF THE MAYA" Vikonav: 2nd year student of the HT-14 group Kulish V.M. Verified by: Senior Investigator of Khrimli P.Ye. KRASNOARMIYSK 2015 CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3 1. Mayan civilization…………………………………… …………………………..4 2.General information about in Freud’s understanding…………………………………………….6 4. Emergence
according to Freud……………………………………...
In 1922, the British Mandate authorities recognized Hebrew, along with English and Arabic, as the official language of Palestine. Hebrew was spoken in Jewish institutions and taught in schools, and books and newspapers were published in it. If the Hebrew of the Bible has about 8,000 words, then the vocabulary of modern Hebrew reaches 120 thousand words.
The Academy of the Hebrew Language, founded in 1953, complements and enriches the updated Hebrew, develops scientific terminology and solves problems of standardizing the literary language.
The Academy of the Hebrew Language is a research center, the highest institution in the field of development and standardization of the Hebrew language, the creation of spelling standards and the enrichment of vocabulary. Established by the Knesset in accordance with the “Law on the Highest Institution in the Field of the Hebrew Language” (1953), it is the successor to the previously existing (since 1890) Hebrew Language Committee. According to the charter, the number of members of the Academy of the Hebrew Language does not exceed 23. The main working bodies are the commissions: on grammar, on spelling, on terminology in various fields of science, technology and culture. The highest body of the Academy is the plenum, which makes final decisions on problems considered in the commissions. The Plenum meets 5-6 times a year. The results of the work and decisions of the Academy are published. In 1968, the Academy approved two types of spelling: one vocalized (voiced), according to traditional spelling rules, the other unvoiced.
Eliezer Ben Yehuda (1858–1922) was the first to recognize in modern times the need to revive Hebrew as a living spoken language. Having moved to Palestine in 1881, he introduced Hebrew into circulation in everyday life and at school, created new words, founded two periodicals in Hebrew, and was one of the initiators of the creation of the Hebrew Language Committee (1890) - the predecessor of the Academy. Ben-Yehuda compiled several volumes of the 17-volume “Complete Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew,” work on which he began in 1910 and was completed only in 1959 by his widow and son.
Research data from recent years indicate that alphabetic writing appeared in Jewish history with the conquest of Canaan by the Jewish tribes. The only kind of Semitic writing up to that time was the Babylonian cuneiform script, and it seems probable that the Hebrew alphabet was the first in Canaan.
Although the Hellenes of the time of Herodotus were convinced that the Phoenicians invented alphabetic writing, and the Jews adopted it from them, there is no evidence that it was the Phoenicians who first introduced alphabetic writing. The names of the letters, preserved unchanged by the Jews from ancient times, prove that Phenicia was not their source.
The Torah was written in Hebrew. The names of the letters of the alphabet are not mentioned either in the Bible or in Hebrew inscriptions. They are known only from the Talmud and Syriac literature. Scientists believe that the names of the letters initially served as names of images (images), which later turned into letters. So, it was customary to interpret: aleph - ox (looks like the head of an ox); bet – house, tent; Gimel is like the neck of a camel; Dalet is like a door; hey looks like a window; vav – hook; zain is a weapon, as its appearance resembles a spear; het – fence; tet – fur; yod – hand, as it looks like a bent hand; kaf – spoon; lamed – goad for livestock; meme - looks like waves; nun – fish; samekh – support; ain is like an eye; pei is like a mouth; tsaddi fishhook or spear; kof – needle eye; resh – head; tire - tooth; tav – drum. Kabbalists believe that the shapes of letters are not random, but have a special, mysterious meaning.
In the development of new literature in Hebrew - the period from the end of the 18th to the end of the 20th century. – it is customary to distinguish several stages: 1) literature of the Haskalah era (late 18th – late 19th centuries); 2) literature of the National Revival period from the end of the 19th century. to the 30s XX century; 3) literature of the “PALMAH generation” (40s–50s of the XX century); 4) literature of the “generation of the State” (60s - late 70s of the XX century); 5) the “newest” period (since the 80s of the 20th century).
Hebrew literature, starting from the end of the 18th century, arose under paradoxical circumstances: the primary material for it, that is, the language itself, actually did not exist. Hebrew was the language of religious worship and spiritual literature around the 17th century. Jews used Yiddish and the languages of the peoples among whom they lived as a means of communication.
At the end of the 18th century. Jewish educators marked the beginning of the revival of Hebrew. The language of the first works of that time strictly corresponded to biblical lexical and grammatical norms. However, a gap was increasingly felt between the Hebrew of the Haskalah and the demands of modernity. This discrepancy was especially evident in literature that sought to adequately depict the speech of characters. It was impossible to achieve this solely through the resources of the Bible because it simply did not contain some of the concepts needed in everyday life.
In this regard, the question arose: what base should be used to create literary works? Adherents of “pure Hebrew”, enlightenment purists, saw the basis exclusively in the biblical language and had a negative attitude towards the Hebrew of later periods. As a result, even the so-called “pompous style” was formed, when some objects or phenomena not mentioned in the Bible were designated using heavy descriptive and sometimes difficult to understand phrases.
Another group of educators, trying to keep up with the times, used all historical layers of language, as well as constantly emerging neologisms and borrowings, in order to bring the works and the language of their characters as close as possible to real life. Some of these neologisms are still used in Hebrew (for example, “address”, “furniture”), others are not fixed in it (for example, “patrol”, literally: “guards rotating around the city”).
The issue of the final “revival” of Hebrew was resolved in the 80s. XIX century thanks to the activities of E. Ben-Yehuda (1859–1922) - scientist, teacher and publicist. His main idea was that in order to unite Jews, they need a common language - Hebrew, therefore it should be constantly used everywhere: at home, on the street, in schools, etc. Ben-Yehuda was actively working on the creation of neologisms, most of which remained in the language (“rubella,” “fashion,” “ice cream”), and until the end of his life he worked on the first multi-volume Hebrew-Hebrew “Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew” ( with synonyms in English and French).
The revival of Hebrew was also greatly facilitated by the activities of writers, classics of Hebrew prose and poetry - Nobel laureate Sh.Y. Agnon (1888-1970), outstanding translator of Russian classical literature A. Shlensky (1900-1973), H.N. Bialik (1873-1934), J.H. Brenner (1881-1921) and others.
In the stories of G. Shofman (1880-1972) there are such transliterated Russianisms as “orderly”, “corporal”, “political instructor”, “captain”, as well as the word “seryo” written in Russian, which the author explains in Hebrew as "gray recruits" Using these words, the writer reminds the reader: the characters speak Russian.
In general, the period from the end of the 19th century. to the 30s The 20th century, rightly called the period of “National Revival,” can be characterized as the beginning of a rapid process of word creation. Literary Hebrew, Hebrew literary prose and poetry were actively developing.
On Hebrew literature of the 40s - 50s. XX century several important historical and political events had a great influence: the Second World War, the Holocaust, in which millions of Jews in Eastern Europe were exterminated by the Nazis, and the proclamation (1948) and construction of the State of Israel.
During this period, N. Alterman, H. Bartov, M. Shamir, H. Guri, E. Kishon, A. Meged, S. Izhar and others worked. Many authors were members of PALMAH detachments, hence the name: “PALMAH generation”.
Hebrew prose of the 40s. The 20th century, the main direction of which was realism, became an organic continuation of the previous literary tradition, which, however, had to be adapted to new living conditions.
In the works of writers of this era, the so-called “Israeli Hebrew” was developed. This happened not only as a result of the organic internal transformation of the language as a system, but also due to an external factor - emigration, when elements of other languages inevitably found their way into Hebrew.
With the generation of PALMAH, a new stage in the development of the language of Hebrew prose began, since the writers were already native speakers of Hebrew and often tried not to rely on the vocabulary of ancient sacred texts. The main themes of the works were the struggle against the British mandate authorities, the war for independence, and the restoration of statehood. The focus was not on the individual, but on the whole team, which has a common goal. This could not but be reflected in the language of the “Palmakhniks”: they formed a special language, a certain code, sometimes understandable only to “their own”. A significant part of this corpus consisted of Arabisms. Purist authors sometimes spent enormous effort searching for adequate words to develop the realistic dialogues of their characters, and experienced difficulties in conveying everyday colloquial speech, as well as with emerging slang units. Colloquial vocabulary was used mainly in dialogues, while the author's narration was conducted in literary Hebrew.
Events of the 1940s–1950s in the history of Israel were reflected not only in serious literature. At this time, a humorous direction began to develop, which was intended to reflect reality in a different way, reduce tension, relieve stress after the difficult years of the Holocaust, the War of Independence, as well as social and political problems associated with the construction of the young State of Israel. The main representatives of humorous and satirical literature are considered to be D. Ben-Amotz, A. Keynan and E. Kishon.
In 1956, a book of humorous stories, “A Collection of Fables,” was published, compiled by Ben-Amotz (1924-1991) and H. Hefer (born in 1925). This is a collection of tales, funny stories, some of which have become popular jokes. The work almost immediately became a cult favorite. There are several characters in it. The epigraph, which sets a certain tone for the entire collection, is the phrase: ““I swear by the health of my eyes that this is true!” (the words of the bespectacled man)",
Satirical and humorous prose of the 50s. had a great influence on Hebrew literature in general and on the Hebrew language itself in particular.
It can be stated that the language of literature of the 40s - 50s. XX century begins to gradually move away from the old norms characteristic of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, since the authors, with the exception of a few (for example, S. Izhar), despite all attempts to reflect the events of the surrounding reality, could not do this adequately, using the resource of high Hebrew . It was also impossible to create works of the new genre of satire using cumbersome, heavy phrases, unless the author sought to write a parody of the events of past years and the language of the people living then. Neologisms, simple colloquial expressions, the use of vernacular, and incorrect grammatical forms looked more appropriate in this genre. In addition, the authors actively began to use borrowings from other languages, as well as from the slang of other languages, primarily from Arabic and English. Some deliberately simplified and impoverished the language of their works. This tendency towards simplification developed in the literary language of subsequent decades. Moreover, it can be said that it is colloquial rather than literary Hebrew that currently dominates Israeli literature.
2. THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN THE LIFE OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE
Among the factors that determined the vitality of the Jewish community and regulated relationships, religion occupies a paramount place.
All religious teachings contain a system of moral values that have enduring universal significance. The basis of the Judaic religion - the multi-volume treatises of the Talmud - were created over several centuries and absorbed the centuries-old experience of the people, their wisdom, as well as the history and philosophy of the surrounding peoples. In addition to explaining the 613 commandments and the ritual of their unquestioning fulfillment, which was mandatory for every devout Jew, the Talmud contains numerous discussions on various issues of law (Halakha), as well as ethical reasoning, folklore, and historical traditions (Aggadah).
Ethical teaching The Talmud has become the subject of numerous philosophical studies. Discussions are still ongoing about the influence of Plato’s philosophy on the ancient Hebrew sages, about the influence of the Talmud on the development of Kant’s ethics, etc. Another, more specific task is to reveal the practical significance of Talmudic ethics, its role in the everyday life of the Jewish community, in the everyday life of people. This is quite widely covered in Jewish fiction, in the works of the greatest writers of the 19th – 20th centuries.
It must be borne in mind that the weighty volumes of the Talmud, written in the obscure Aramaic language, were the property of not only the learned religious elite, but also a fairly wide circle of people. Every Saturday, after the service, community members gathered in the synagogue, read, discussed chapters of the Talmud, and argued about emerging problems. It was a form of communication and education philosophical thinking. The assimilation of complex Talmud texts was facilitated by the presence of extensive commentaries, as well as the form of their presentation in the form of discussions of sages, supported by parables, fairy tales, and historical examples. The well-known sayings “teaching and Talmudism” are essentially incorrect. Many famous thinkers who came from a Jewish environment attended the school of the Talmud. The heroes of Sholom Aleichem and other Jewish writers always reason; they come to an explanation of a simple event through many questions and answers, comparisons and examples. The poor local man, overwhelmed by poverty, interprets them in his own way and offers his own solutions. A poor woman from a cramped communal apartment, whose neighbor stole Shabbat tsimmes from the oven, refutes the teachings of socialism through her sad experience. The famous hero of Sholom Aleichem, Tevye the milkman, finds in the teachings and quotations from the Talmud an explanation for all the difficult situations that he encounters. The teachings of the Talmud inspire him and make him an optimist despite all sorrows and trials.
The pre-revolutionary Jewish community was characterized by mass poverty and acute social contradictions. Mutual assistance acquired particular importance here. Among the 613 commandments, almost the first place is occupied by “tzedakah” - almsgiving. But the word “alms” does not exhaust this concept and does not accurately convey it. Almsgiving is a gift from the haves to the have-nots. And “tzedakah” is justice, a good deed, a holy deed. On the eve of Saturday and holidays, donations were collected for those most in need, so that everyone could celebrate the holiday with dignity. The poor gave to the even poorer. Characteristic was the absence of moral humiliation from poverty, a sense of equality and dignity of everyone, a contemptuous attitude towards arrogance and the rich. The basis of such stereotypes was the teaching of the Holy Scriptures that we are all from Adam, the reasoning of the Talmud, why God created one person, as well as the well-known aphorism, which received a wide interpretation in the Talmud - “why is your blood redder?” Everyone has the same blood, everyone descended from the same ancestor and no one should be proud of their wealth or social status.
The above sayings of the Talmud contribute to the solution of one of the most difficult problems - the attitude of the Jewish community towards the non-Jewish surrounding population. Too many preconceived judgments and conclusions have accumulated on this issue. The teachings of the Talmud, its ethics are built on the equality of all people and require respect for the foreigner, the foreigner, for it reminds everyone that “we were strangers in the land of Egypt,” and demands: “do not oppress the alien, the orphan, the widow.” The alien comes first here. The Jewish community lived its own spiritual life. This often caused misunderstanding of the surrounding Christian population. But in practical life relations between people were normal and good neighborly, although there were misunderstandings that are common in relations between people. Hostility and hostility were forced from the outside. The majority of ordinary Christian clergy did not support pogroms and anti-Semitic sentiments. Reactionary forces, in most cases with the support of the authorities, sought to direct their dissatisfaction with the local wine merchant or moneylender against the entire Jewish people. Neither the Christian nor the Jewish religions gave any reason for this. It is incorrect to identify gangs of pogromists with the masses of the Christian population.
Jews use lunar calendar, a normal year consists of 12 months of 29 and 30 days: Tishrei, Cheshvan, Kislev, Tevet, Shevat, Adar, Nisan, Iyar, Sivan, Tammuz, Av and Elul.
The Jewish calendar is much older than the Gregorian calendar generally accepted today, and differs from it in many ways. The Jewish calendar dates back to the creation of the world, which dates back to 3761 BC. The calendar was established by the Sanelrin (the Highest Jewish Religious Court) around 359 BC.
According to Jewish tradition, a new day begins not at midnight, but with sunset and the appearance of the first stars in the sky, since the Torah says: “And there was evening and there was morning: one day,” that is, evening preceded morning.
The Moon makes a complete revolution around the Earth in approximately 29 days. We take this period of time to be a month. Each month of the Jewish calendar contains 29 or 30 days. The moment when the Moon, after completely disappearing from view, then begins to grow again, is called a new moon. The new moon marks the beginning of a new month - Rosh Chodesh. The first night of the Jewish month always begins with the new moon - the appearance new moon, and the full moon always falls on the 15th day of the month. Towards the end of the month, the Moon noticeably decreases until it ceases to be visible at all.
If our year consisted only of lunar months, then the months would constantly “slide” across the calendar and would not coincide with certain seasons. After all, twelve lunar months are only 355 days. Ten more days are not enough for the Sun to complete its revolution around the Earth. Therefore, although the Jewish calendar is based on the lunar cycle, in order to harmonize the lunar months with the solar year, a certain procedure has been established for adding seven additional months over 19 years. The added month is inserted before Nissan (Nisan is considered the first month of the year according to the Torah) and is called Adar-bet - the second Adar. A year in which there is an added month is called “shana meuberet” - leap year.
New Year– Rosh Hashanah falls in the month of Tishrei, since Jews believe that God created the world in this month. The prayer read on Rosh Hashanah says that on this day a decision is made in heaven about who will die this year, who will be born, who will live in peace, and who will suffer.
The holiday of Yom Kippur - the Day of Atonement - is separated from the New Year by ten days - ten days of repentance.
At this time, believers engage in charity, since behavior on days of repentance can influence God’s decision about a person’s future fate. On the Day of Atonement, Jews are required to fast for 25 hours, and it is forbidden not only to eat, but also to drink. The prayers said on Yom Kippur are the longest of the year, the service lasts from morning to night with short breaks. The main themes of the holiday are the themes of life and death, since it is traditionally believed that on this day the Lord makes the final decision about the fate of people.
The next holiday of the Jewish calendar, Sukkot, is also celebrated in the month of Tishrei. On the eve of this holiday, Jews must build a hut - a sukkah, which serves as a reminder of the times when their ancestors wandered in the desert for forty years.
One of the most joyful holidays is Simchat Torah, the Joy of the Torah. On this day, the annual cycle of reading the Pentateuch ends and a new one immediately begins, with the verses of the book of Genesis. At the beginning of the holiday (and the holidays begin in the evening), prominent members of the Jewish community walk around the synagogue with Torah scrolls in their hands, and believers surround them, dance and try to touch the scrolls.
Hanukkah, like many other Jewish holidays, is associated with events in Jewish history, namely the revolt against the Syrian king Antiochus (who ruled Judea) under the leadership of the Maccabees in the 2nd century BC. The rebels managed to capture Jerusalem, and they decided to consecrate and cleanse the temple, desecrated by the Syrian king, on whose orders they brought a statue of Zeus into the temple and sacrificed pigs. Olive oil was needed for the cleansing ritual, but only one jug was found in the temple, which was enough for one day, and in accordance with the ritual, the oil should burn for eight days. Then a miracle happened - the oil burned for all eight days. The holiday dedicated to this miracle is also celebrated for eight days. On the first day it is customary to light one candle, on the second - two, etc. up to eight candles.
The holiday of Purim is not inferior to Hanukkah in fun, it is also associated with a story, this time described in the biblical book of Esther, which tells of the happy deliverance of the Jews from the extermination planned by Haman. On this day, the Scroll of Esther is read in the synagogue, and when the name of Haman is mentioned, believers - both adults and children - begin to rattle their rattles, in addition, many put on carnival costumes.
The celebration of Passover, the most popular Jewish holiday, is prescribed in the Torah, in the book of Exodus. Passover is associated with the exodus of the Jews from Egypt and their liberation from slavery. During the holiday, which lasts seven days, it is forbidden to eat bread and other leavened products; instead they eat matzah (unleavened bread). The culmination of Passover is the festive meal - Seder; its purpose is to recall the history of liberation, therefore all dishes on the table have symbolic meaning. For example, bitter greens (usually horseradish) - maror - symbolize the bitterness of slavery, a dish of nuts and apples is reminiscent of the clay from which bricks were made for Egyptian houses.
50 days after Passover comes Shavuot - a holiday celebrated in memory of an important event for every Jew - the giving of the Torah. Probably, this meaning was given to the holiday later (according to the Talmud, on the first day of the holiday God gave the Jews the Ten Commandments), and in the Pentateuch Shavuot is called the holiday of the end of the harvest.
On the day of the 9th of Av (late July - mid-August), tradition coincides with the saddest events in Jewish history. On this day the Babylonians destroyed the first temple (586 BC), and the Romans burned the second temple (70 AD), on the same day in 1290 the Jews were expelled from England, and in 1492 year - from Spain. A full fast is observed on the ninth of Av.
Shabbat is Saturday. The commandment to observe the Sabbath is contained in the Torah, but the rules for observing it are not given there. The types of work prohibited on Saturdays were determined by the sages. Thus, the Mishnah lists 39 forbidden activities, here are some of them: you cannot plow, harvest, bake, dye wool, build and destroy, slaughter animals, sew. The Shabbat holiday begins the evening before and ends on Saturday evening with the lighting of candles (usually done by women). On this day, a special ceremony is held - havdalah (“separation”), symbolizing the separation of the Sabbath from other days. First they say a blessing over the wine, then over the incense, and finally they bless the fire of the candles. Nowadays, the havdalah ceremony is observed primarily by Orthodox Jews.
3. FORMATION OF THE STATE OF ISRAEL
In the course of the historical development of pre-revolutionary Russia, the Jewish community changed, freed itself from the dominance of clericalism and kahal, secular elements played an increasingly important role in its life, and the national intelligentsia and culture developed. In extreme historical conditions, the community showed great power of self-preservation and self-organization. Mass relocation Russian Jews to America at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. did not destroy, but only gave it new forms, confirmed its vitality. The mass assimilation of the Jewish population of Russia after the October Revolution is the result of the elimination of the Pale of Settlement. This was important, but it was not the main reason. It is known that in Germany, France, England and other European countries there was no “Pale of Settlement” and obvious national discrimination, but the Jewish community and culture were preserved, although the process of assimilation also took place there. The mass assimilation of Russian Jews, like other peoples, was the result of the forced liquidation of the community, the closure of synagogues, first religious and then general Jewish schools, the liquidation of newspapers and magazines, book publishing houses, and theaters.
The special status of Jews in Russia, their discrimination at the state level (“the Pale of Settlement”, restrictions in almost all areas of life), some national traits, which were also largely a consequence of their unequal position (a heightened sense of national pride, a strong desire to preserve their national originality in exceptionally unfavorable conditions, a great desire for education, which for them was also one of the means of increasing their social status) - all this and much more gradually formed negative stereotypes about Jews among a significant part of the non-Jewish population.
Israel's own national state appeared on the political map of the world in May 1948, but preparatory work for the creation of Jewish statehood had been carried out long before that. For many centuries, Jews scattered throughout different countries of the world were characterized by a desire to return to the “Promised Land”, where their state once was. This movement was of a religious and political nature. At the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. In accordance with the program of the first congress of the World Zionist Organization, convened in 1897 in Palestine, the first Jewish settlements were created. Zionism (return to Zion), an ancient movement “for the revival of the Jewish people in their historical homeland,” at this time acquired the character of a politically organized movement. At the same time, the first Zionist political parties appeared in Palestine, which served as the basis for the formation of the future multi-party system of Israel.
However, the Jewish community's desire for national and state sovereignty encountered stubborn resistance from the Palestinian Arabs. The Arabs, led by their religious leaders, categorically refused to discuss the very possibility of partitioning Palestine. It's already the 30s. were marked by violent political confrontations and armed conflicts between Jewish and Arab communities. In the post-war period, especially in 1947, they escalated into a real war that engulfed most of the country. In such a situation, the British government was forced to refer the issue of the future status of Palestine to the UN.
On November 29, 1947, the UN General Assembly voted by a majority vote (with the rare mutual consent of the USSR and the USA) to abolish the British mandate regime in Palestine in May 1948 and create two independent states on its territory - Arab and Jewish. At the same time, a representative body of the Jewish population was created - the People's Council. Exactly at the hour of the expiration of British rule in Palestine on the night of May 14-15, 1948, the People's Council held its meeting, at which one of the leading political leaders, D. Ben-Gurion, read the Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed the creation of the State of Israel.
During the first year of the existence of the State of Israel, it was recognized by 55 states, members of the UN. On May 11, 1949, Israel also became a member of the UN.
Israel is a parliamentary republic. The head of state is the president. The highest legislative body of the country is the Knesset, the highest executive body is the government, headed by the Prime Minister, whose role in public life is especially great. The government is subordinate to the Knesset, and the judiciary is independent.
Immediately after the proclamation of the State of Israel, the armies of 7 neighboring Arab countries invaded its territory. The first Arab-Israeli war began. In it, Israel, relying on the help of the United States, managed not only to repel the offensive of Arab forces, but also to annex 6.7 thousand square meters to its territory. km allocated by the UN for the Arab state, as well as the Western part of Jerusalem. The eastern part of the city and the western bank of the Jordan River were occupied by Jordan, Egypt - the Gaza Strip. About 900 thousand Palestinian Arabs were forced to leave their areas of residence captured by the Israelis and become refugees in neighboring Arab countries. Thus, along with the birth of the state of Israel, one of the most painful problems of our time arose - the Palestinian problem.
Neighboring Arab countries did not recognize Israel and immediately declared war on it. On May 15, 1948, the combined armed forces of Egypt, Transjordan (hereinafter Jordan), Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and Yemen launched an offensive. However, the Israeli army stopped the enemy and struck back.
In June 1949, a truce was signed between Israel and neighboring Arab countries (Egypt, Transjordan, Lebanon and Syria). The territory allocated for the Arab Palestinian state was captured by Israel, which won a military victory in the 1948–1949 war, Egypt (Gaza Strip) and Transjordan (West Bank).
In January 1950, the Israeli parliament, contrary to the UN decision, declared West Jerusalem the capital of Israel. Its parliament and government were transferred here.
After nationalization in July 1956 on the initiative of Egyptian President G.A. Nasser Suez Canal The Anglo-French company that previously owned the canal lost $100 million. annual profit. Egyptian authorities banned the passage of Israeli ships through the canal, as well as transport ships that went to Israeli ports.
At the end of October 1956, Israeli troops launched an invasion of the Sinai Peninsula, they were actively supported by British and French troops. During the fighting, the combined group encountered active resistance from the Egyptians. This circumstance, as well as a UN Security Council resolution and political support for Egypt from the USSR, forced the allies to stop hostilities in early December. By the end of 1956, Great Britain and France, and in March 1957, Israel withdrew their troops from Egyptian territory. The Second Arab–Israeli War secured the borders between Israel and Egypt, but control of them was entrusted to UN peacekeeping troops.
Tensions between Israel and the Arab states rose sharply in the 1960s. The situation was aggravated by the fact that they were backed by the geopolitical interests of the USA and the USSR, respectively.
The President of Egypt and the King of Jordan issued bellicose statements that they were ready to “throw Israel into the sea.” On June 5, 1967, the Israeli military command decided to launch a preemptive strike, and on June 6, Israeli tank units occupied the Gaza Strip. Within a few days, using the factor of surprise, the Israelis also captured the Sinai Peninsula, the Arab (eastern) part of Jerusalem, the West Bank, and the Golan Heights.
The UN Security Council actively intervened in the course of events, and hostilities were stopped. The USSR and Eastern European countries broke off diplomatic relations with Israel. However, the “six-day war” and its results worsened the situation in the region. At a meeting of Arab heads of state in Khartoum (Sudan) in August 1967, an extremely tough position was taken towards Israel, which excluded any negotiations with it. The Arab states did not recognize Israel's right to exist.
The next war, which began in October 1973, in which the Arab states set themselves the goal of returning lost territories, also did not bring them success. On October 6, 1973, while Israel was celebrating a religious holiday and the army, consisting mainly of reservists, was disbanded to their homes, Egyptian troops invaded the Sinai Peninsula and the Syrians captured part of the territory Golan Heights.
In September 1978, Egyptian President A. Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister M. Begin met at Camp David, the country residence of the US President, and agreed on the text of a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel. Israel agreed to gradually withdraw its troops from the Sinai Peninsula (this process was completed in 1982). The signing of the peace treaty took place in Washington in March 1979.
The end of the Cold War in the 1990s. gave new impetus to the process of resolving the Middle East conflict. Since 1991, with the international conference on the Middle East in Madrid, intensive peace negotiations began between Israel, the Palestinians and Arab countries. For the first time, bilateral meetings between representatives of Israel and delegations of the PLO, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon took place. In September 1993, in Washington, Israeli Prime Minister I. Rabin and PLO Chairman Ya. Arafat signed a Declaration of Principles for an Interim Settlement. Palestinians were granted temporary self-government in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. Jordan. Ya. Arafat became the head of the Palestinian Authority. In October 1994, Israel and Jordan signed a full-scale peace treaty. Diplomatic relations were established between the countries. In September 1995, in Washington, the heads of the Palestinian and Israeli delegations signed the Interim Agreement between the PLO and Israel. The agreement provided for the election of a Palestinian Council with legislative and executive powers. A few months later, articles that called for the destruction of the State of Israel were removed from the Palestinian National Charter.
However, new obstacles have arisen on the path to a peaceful settlement. The leader of the right-wing Likud bloc, B. Netanyahu, who became prime minister in May 1996, took an extremely tough position towards the Palestinians. He refused territorial concessions to the Arabs and categorically denied the possibility of creating a Palestinian state. The solution to the Middle East problem has again reached a dead end. Israel continued to establish Jewish settlements in occupied Arab lands. Negotiations between representatives of Israel and the PLO in the US and UK ended unsuccessfully. In 1999, after the parliamentary elections, E. Barak, the leader of the parties of the center-left bloc, became the new prime minister. He took a more constructive position on the problems of the Israeli-Palestinian settlement. The negotiation process has resumed. However, no real compromise could be reached.
At the turn of the century, there was a sharp escalation in the Israeli-Palestinian confrontation. With the proclamation of self-government, the socio-economic situation of the Palestinians not only did not improve, but, on the contrary, worsened. In 2000, after the leader of the right-wing Likud bloc A. Sharon (Prime Minister of Israel since February 2001) decided to visit the Muslim and Jewish holy places on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, mass protests by Palestinians began. In the fall of 2000, open clashes began between them and the Israeli police. In March 2001, when a ceasefire agreement was about to be concluded, Palestinian extremists began a series of terrorist attacks unprecedented in their cruelty in cities and towns against the Israeli civilian population, which have not stopped to this day. Palestinian leader Ya. Arafat loudly declared his condemnation of violence and his non-involvement in organizing and carrying out terrorist attacks, but numerous facts indicated the opposite. In April 2002, Sharon ordered the actual start of a war against extremists in the Palestinian Authority. Its main goal was the destruction of Palestinian militants, their bases, and headquarters. However, Israel soon agreed to the peace plan of US President George W. Bush and lifted the blockade from a number of territories of the Palestinian Authority. Immediate cessation of terrorist acts against Israeli civilians by Palestinian extremists; the immediate withdrawal of Israeli troops from the territory of the Palestinian Authority and the resumption of peace dialogue; stopping the construction of Jewish settlements in the Palestinian territories; recognition of Israel's right to a secure existence. The US President called for reforms and new elections in the Palestinian Authority. He said the Palestinians must elect a new leader “not compromised by terror.” However, subsequent terrorist attacks in 2003–2004, carried out by Palestinian extremists, again postponed the process of peaceful resolution of the conflict in the Middle East - the most protracted in recent history - indefinitely.
Thus, in its short history, Israel has participated in six wars with neighboring states, relations with which were initially determined by armistice agreements concluded in 1949 with Egypt, Syria, Lebanon and Transjordan.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we summarize and focus on two key problems of the work - the phenomenon of the revival of the Hebrew language and the so-called. uniqueness of Jewish history and religion.
The experience of reviving the Hebrew language is of significant scientific interest. What factors of language revival did the Israeli experience reveal? First of all, the existence of a law on the national state language. The second factor is the introduction of language in the education system. Moreover, an important point is the language of universities. Hebrew reigned here only after the development of a powerful terminological layer of vocabulary and after convincing teachers of the feasibility and prospects of teaching in this language. But the real triumph of Hebrew arose only when kindergartens were opened everywhere, where education was carried out in Hebrew. The third factor is the regime of greatest assistance for national literature, maximum benefits for Hebrew periodicals, radio and television broadcasting, and theater. The fourth factor is the standardization of phonetics, i.e. the need to exclude from everyday life all introduced foreign sounds and sound combinations. Fifth - a set of new vocabulary adequate to the emergence or borrowing of new realities.
As for the uniqueness of Jewish history and God’s chosenness of the Jewish nation, I believe that no matter how unique and exceptional the centuries-old history of the Jewish people may be, it can be explained and “derived” from the very specific historical circumstances of its existence, economic, political, spiritual-ideological, not appealing to “otherworldly” imaginary phenomena. This story is only a peculiar, special manifestation of general social objective laws. In other words, we should talk about the fundamental normality of Jewish history, paying tribute to the national myth of the Jewish people, which has become a significant factor in both national genesis and state building in the modern era.
LIST OF REFERENCES USED
1. Attias J.-C., Benbassa E. Jewish civilization: Personalities. Acts. Concepts: Encyclopedic Dictionary / A. Kristalovsky (translated from French). – M.: LORI, 2000. – 217 p.
2. Power and politics in the State of Israel: socio-political dynamics. – Tel Aviv: Open University Publishing House, 1995. – 264 p.
3. Elisavetsky S.Ya. History of the Jewish people: Course of lectures: Proc. aid for students universities – K., 2000. – 431 p.
4. Zhukov L.G., Zhuravsky A.V., Pimenov A.V. Religions of the world. – M.: Bustard, 1997. – 272 p.
5. Kryukov A.A. Hebrew literature in the 20th century. – M.: Ant, 2005. – 368
6. Recent history countries of Asia and Africa: In 3 hours / Ed. A.M. Rodriguez. – M.: Vlados, 2001. – Part 2: 1945-2000. – 320 s.
7. Society and politics of modern Israel: Sat. Art. / A.D. Epstein (ed.), A.V. Fedorchenko (ed.). – M.: Bridges of Culture, 2002. – 144 p.
8. Svet M. Hebrew fiction // Asia and Africa today. – 2007. – No. 3. – P. 75–78.
Svet M. Hebrew fiction // Asia and Africa today. – 2007. – No. 3. – P. 75.
Kryukov A.A. Hebrew literature in the 20th century. – M.: Ant, 2005. – P. 120.
BPB - Great Guide to the Bible / Trans. with him. M.: Republic, 1993. – 479 p.
IVL - History of world literature in 9 volumes. T. 1–8. M.: Nauka, 1983–1994 [publication ongoing].
MNM - Myths of the peoples of the world: Encyclopedia. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. T. I, 1987. – 672 pp.; vol. II, 1988. – 720 p.
PPBES - Complete Orthodox Theological Encyclopedic Dictionary. T. I–II. M., 1992. – 2464 columns. [Reprint edition].
SKK - Dictionary of scribes and bookishness of Ancient Rus' / Responsible. ed. D.S. Likhachev. L.: Science. Vol. 1 (XI – first half of the XIV centuries), 1987. – 494 p.; Vol. 2 (second half of the XIV–XVI centuries). Part 1. A-K, 1988. – 517 p.; Part 2. L-Ya, 1989. – 528 p.
Soloviev – Soloviev B.S. Collection Op. T.1–10. 2nd ed. St. Petersburg, 1911–1914.
FE – Philosophical Encyclopedia. T. 1–5. M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1960–1970.
Educational and reference literature is marked with an asterisk (*), classical works are marked with two asterisks (**)
* Averintsev S.S. Orthodoxy // FE. M. 1967. T. 4. pp. 333–335.
* Averintsev S.S. Theology // FE. M. 1970. T. 5. pp. 200–202.
* Averintsev S.S. Paganism // FE. M. 1970. T. 5, pp. 611–612.
* ** Averintsev S.S. Poetics of early Byzantine literature. M.: Nauka, 1977. – 320 p.*.
* Averintsev S.S. Ancient Hebrew literature // IVL. T. 1, 1983. pp. 271–302.
* Averintsev S.S. Origins and development of early Christian literature // IVL. T. 1, 1983[a]. pp. 501–515.
* Averintsev S.S. Judaic mythology // MNM. T. 1, 1987. pp. 581–590.
* Averintsev S.S. John the Theologian // MNM. T. 1, 1987[a]. pp. 549–551.
* Avesta: Selected hymns. From Videvdat / Trans. from Avest. I. Steblin-Kamensky. M.: Friendship of Peoples, 1993. – 208 p.
* Alekseev A.A. Holy Scripture as a monument Old Russian writing// Russian literature. 1994. No. 4. pp. 202–213.
* Amusin I.D. Qumran community. M.: Nauka, 1983. – 328 p.
* Ancient theories of language and style. M.; L.: Sotsekgiz, 1936. – 344 p.
* Apocrypha of ancient Christians / Research, texts, comments. M.: Mysl, 1989. – 336 p.
* Atharva Veda. Favorites / Translation, commentary and will enter, Art. T.Ya. Elizarenkova. M.: Nauka, 1976. – 407 p.
* Afanasyev A.N. [compiler] Russian folk tales. T. I–III / Ed. M.K. Azadovsky, N.P. Andreeva, Yu.M. Sokolova. M.: Goslitizdat, 1936–1940.
* Afanasyeva V.K. Literature of Sumer and Babylonia / Poetry. – 1973. P. 115–126 [see. corresponding to the position in this list].
* Bayburin A.K. Ritual in traditional culture: Structural-semantic analysis of East Slavic rituals. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1993. – 240 p.
* Bartashev?ch G.A. Top genres of Belarusian dz?tsyachaga folklore. M?nsk: Navuka? Tzkhn?ka, 1976. – 168 p.
* Bartashev?ch G.A. (warehouse). Granny was yapping like that... The deputies are in hell. M?nsk: Navuka? Tekhn?ka, 1992. – 54 p.
* ** Bartold V.V. Op. T. 6. Works on the history of Islam and the Arab Caliphate. M.: Nauka, 1966. – 784 p.
* ** Bartold V.V. Islam / Bartold V.V. Islam and Muslim culture. M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1992. pp. 3–51.
* Botkin L.M. Italian humanists: Lifestyle and style of thinking. M.: Nauka, 1978. – 200 p.
* ** Bakhtin M.M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. M.: Art, 1979. – 424 p.
* Bella R.N. Sociology of religion / American sociology: Perspectives, problems, methods. M.: Progress, 1972. pp. 265–281. [Fragments from this article are published in the works – Religion. 1994, p. 116–118 (titled “Religion as a Symbolic Model Shaping Human Experience”); Garaja. 1995, p. 306–308.
* Berdyaev N. Self-Knowledge (An Experience in Philosophical Autobiography). M: Book, 1991. – 448 p.
* Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. National and territorial characteristics in autonomy. St. Petersburg, 1913. – V, 84 p.
* * BPB - Great Guide to the Bible / Trans. with him. M.: Republic, 1993. – 479 p.*.
* Borges H.L. Letters of God. M.: Republic, 1992. – 512 p.
* Braginsky K.S. Ancient Iranian literature // IVL. T. 1, 1983. pp. 252–271.
* * Brook S.I. World Population: Ethnodemographic Directory. M.: Nauka, 1986. – 830 p.
* Buber M. Two images of faith. M.: Republic, 1995. – 464 p.
* Bulgakov S.N. Philosophy of the name. Paris: YMCA–Press, 1953. – 279 p.
* Bulgakov S.N. Orthodoxy: Essays on the teachings of the Orthodox Church. M.: Terra, 1991. – 416 p.
* ** Buslaev F.I. About literature: Research; Articles. M.: Artist. lit., 1990. – 512 p.
* * Vasiliev L.S. History of Eastern religions (religious and cultural traditions and society). M.: Higher. school, 1983. – 368 p.
* * East Slavic folklore: Dictionary of scientific and folk terminology. M?nsk: Navuka? Tekhn?ka, 1993. – 479 p.
* ** Vygotsky L.S., Luria A.R. Sketches on the history of behavior: Monkey. Primitive. Child. M.: Pedagogika-Press, 1993. – 224 p.
* ** Gamkrelidze T.V., Ivanov Vyach.Vs. Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans: Reconstruction and historical-typological analysis of the proto-language and protoculture. Parts I – II. Tbilisi: Publishing house Tbilissk. un-ta. – 1984. – XCVI+1328 p.
* * Garadzha V.I. Religious studies. M.: Aspect-Press, 1995. – 350 p.
* Gardner K. Towards the philosophy of the third millennium: Bakhtin and others // Philosophical Sciences. 1994. No. 1–3. pp. 3–25.
* Gasparov B.M. Medieval Latin poetics in the system of medieval grammar and rhetoric // Problems of literary theory in Byzantium and the Latin Middle Ages. M.: Nauka, 1986. pp. 91–169.
* Gelb I.E. Experience in learning writing (Fundamentals of Grammar). M.: Raduga, 1982. – 367 p.
* Golenishchev-Kutuzov I.N. Italian Renaissance and Slavic literature of the 15th–16th centuries. M.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1963. – 416 p.
* Gorfunkel A.Kh. Humanism – Reformation – Counter-Reformation // Culture of the Renaissance and Reformation. L.: Nauka, 1981. pp. 7–19.
* Grintser P.A. Ancient Indian literature // IVL. 1983, Vol. 1, pp. 204–251.
* Grünebaum von G.E. Main features of Arab-Muslim culture: Articles from different years. M.: Nauka, 1981. – 228 p.
* ** Humboldt V. On the differences in the structure of human languages and its influence on spiritual development humanity // In the book: Humboldt V. Selected works on linguistics. M.: Progress, 1984. pp. 37–298.
* ** Gurevich A.Ya. The Medieval World: The Culture of the Silent Majority. M.: Art, 1990. – 398 p.
* Gurevich A.Ya. Folk magic and church ritual // Mechanisms of culture. M.: Nauka, 1990 [a]. pp. 3–27.
* Gurevich P.S. Murmuring of the soul and mystical experience (Phenomenology of religion by W. James) // James W. The variety of religious experience. M.: Nauka, 1993. pp. 411–424.
* ** Dal V.I. Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language. T. I–IV. M.: Russian language, 1978.
* ** James W. The Variety of Religious Experience. M.: Nauka, 1993. – 432 p.
* * Dogmatic theology: Course of lectures / Comp. Archimandrite Alipiy (Kastalsky-Borozdin) and Archimandrite Isaiah (Belov). Holy Trinity Lavra, 1994. – 288 p.
* Mikhail Dronov, archpriest. Scripture and Tradition // Journal of the Moscow Patriarchate. 1993. No. 11. P. 9–25.
* Eleonskaya E. To the study of conspiracy and witchcraft in Russia. Vol. 1 / Printing house of the Shamordino Desert, 1917. – 64 p.
* Elizarenkova T.Ya., Toporov V.N. About the Vedic riddle of the brahmodya type // Paremiological studies. Sat. Art. M.: Nauka, 1984. pp. 14–46.
* Zhukovskaya L.P. Textology and the language of the most ancient Slavic monuments. M.: Nauka, 1976. – 368 p.
* Zelenin D.K. Taboos of words among the peoples of Eastern Europe and Northern Asia // Sat. Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography. T. 8. L., 1929. – 151 p.
* Zenkovsky V.V. History of Russian philosophy. L.: Ego, 1991. T. II. Part 2. – 270 p.
* Znosko-Borovsky Mitrofan, archpriest. Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, Protestantism and Sectarianism: Comparative Theology. Ed. Holy Trinity Sergius Lavra, 1992. – 208 p.
* Ivanov Vyach.Vs. Ancient Indian myth about the establishment of names and its parallel in the Greek tradition // India in antiquity (Collected articles). M.: Nauka, 1964. pp. 85–94.
* ** Ivanov Vyach.Vs. Essays on the history of semiotics in the USSR. M.: Nauka, 1976. – 304 p.
* Ivanov Vyach.Vs. Notes // Levi-Stroe K. Structural anthropology. M.: Nauka, 1985. pp. 340–364.
* Ivanov Vyach.Vs. About linguistic research by P.A. Florensky // Questions of linguistics. 1986. No. 6. P. 69–87.
* Islam: A Quick Reference Guide. M.: Nauka, 1983. – 160 p.
* Islam: Encyclopedic Dictionary. M.: Nauka, 1991. – 316 p.
* Ancient world history. M.: Nauka, 1989. Book. 3. Decline of ancient societies. 3rd ed., corrected. and additional – 407 p.
* History of Indian Literatures / Ed. Dr. Nagendra / Trans. from English M.: Progress, 1964. – 808 p.
* History of linguistic teachings: Ancient world. L.: Nauka, 1980. – 259 p.
* Kartashev A.V. Essays on the history of the Russian church. M.: Nauka, 1991. T. I – 704 pp.; T. II – 576 p. [Reprint of the 1959 Paris edition].
* Klimovich L.I. A book about the Koran, its origins and mythology. M.: Politizdat, 1986. – 270 p.
* ** Klyuchevsky V. O. Course of Russian history. M.: Mysl, 1988. Part III. – 416 p.
* Kovtun L.S. Russian lexicography of the Middle Ages. M.; L: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1963. – 446 p.
* Kovtun L.S. Azbkovniki XVI–XVII centuries. (Older variety). L.: Nauka, 1989. – 296 p.
* ** Konrad N.I. Essay on the cultural history of medieval Japan in the 7th–16th centuries. M.: Art, 1980. – 144 p.
* ** Korostovtsev M.A. Scribes ancient egypt. M.: Publishing House of Eastern Literature, 1962. – 176 p.
* ** Korostovtsev M.A. Introduction to Egyptian philology. M.: Publishing House of Eastern Literature, 1963. – 280 p.
* Kostyukhin E.A. Types and forms of animal epic. M.: Nauka, 1987. – 271 p.
* Kochetkov, priest Georgy. About the Russian language in worship // Nezavisimaya Gazeta. January 14, 1993
* ** Krachkovsky I.Yu. Study of selected passages of the Koran in the original // Koran. Per. and comment. I.Yu. Krachkovsky. 2nd ed. M.: Nauka, 1986. pp. 671–694.
* Culture of Byzantium: IV - first half of the VII century. M.: Nauka, 1984. – 726 p.
* Litvinouskaya A.G. Elements of padlik in the structure of Belarusian personalities // Bulletin of Beldziarzhuniversiteta. Ser. 4. 1992. No. 1. pp. 38–50.
* Likhachev D.S. Some tasks of studying the second South Slavic influence in Russia // Studies in Slavic literary criticism and folklore: Reports of Soviet scientists at the IV International Congress of Slavists. M.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1960. pp. 95–151.
* ** Likhachev D.S. Development of Russian literature of the X–XVII centuries. L.: Nauka, 1973. – 254 p.
* Losev A.F. Philosophy of the name. M.: Publishing house Mosk. University, 1990. – 269 p.
* ** Losev A.F. History of ancient aesthetics: Late Hellenism. M.: Art, 1980. – 766 p.
* [Losev A.F.] P.A. Florensky according to the memoirs of Alexei Losev: Publication by Yu.A. Rostovtsev and P.V. Florensky // Context-90. Literary Critical Studies. M.: Nauka, 1990. pp. 6–24.
* Lossky N.O. History of Russian philosophy. M.: Sov. writer, 1991. – 480 p.
* Markish S.P. Meeting Erasmus from Rotterdam. M.: Fiction, 1971. – 224 p.
* Martynau V.U. Ethnagenes of the Slavs: Language and myth. Minsk: Navuka and technology, 1993. – 23 p.
* Maslov S.I. Kirill Tranquillion-Stavrovetsky and his literary activity. Kyiv: Naukova Dumka, 1984. – 346 p.
* Masse A. Islam: Essay on History. M.: Publishing House of Eastern Literature, 1963. – 230 p.
* Meletinsky E.M. Poetics of myth. M.: Nauka, 1976. – 408 p.
* Meletinsky E.M. One // MNM, 1988. T. II. pp. 241–243.
* Meletinsky E.M. Honey of poetry // MNM, 1988[a]. T. II. pp. 127–128.
* Menard R. Myths in art old and new / Reprint reproduction of the 1900 edition. M.: Young Guard, 1992. – 280 p.
* Men A. [V.] On the history of Russian Orthodox biblical studies // Theological works. T. 28, 1987. pp. 272–289.
* Men A. [V.] History of religion in 7 volumes. M.: Slovo, 1991. T. 2.
* Magic and Monotheism: The religious path of humanity before the era of the great Teachers. – 464 p.
* Men A. [V.] Orthodox worship. Sacrament, Word and Image. M.: Slovo, 1991 [a]. – 192 p.
* Men A. [V.] History of religion: In search of the Path, Truth and Life. Based on the books of Archpriest Alexander Men: A book for reading in high school. M.: Miros, 1994. – 184 p.
* Mechkovskaya N.B. Early East Slavic grammars. Minsk: Universitetskoe, 1984. – 160 p.
* * Mechkovskaya N.B. Social linguistics. M.: Aspect-Press, 1994. – 207 p.
* Mechkovskaya N.B., Suprun A.E. Knowledge about language in the medieval culture of the southern and western Slavs // History of linguistic teachings: Late Middle Ages. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1991. pp. 125–181.
* Markina Z.A., Pomerants G.S. Great religions of the world / M.: RI-POL, 1995. – 403 p.
* * Mythological dictionary. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1991. – 736 p.
* * MNM: Myths of the peoples of the world. Encyclopedia. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. T. I, 1987. – 672 pp.; T. II, 1988. – 720 p.
* Novik E.S. Ritual and folklore in Siberian shamanism (Experience in comparing structures). M.: Nauka, 1984. – 304 p.
* Patchynalniki. From the history of literary materials of the 19th century. / Layer G.V. Kisialeu. Red. V.V. Barysenka, A.L. Maldzis. Minsk: Navuka and technology, 1977. – 544 p.
* Piotrovsky M.B. Koranic tales. M.: Nauka, 1991. – 219 p.
* Pomerantz G.S. Krishnamurti and the problem of religious nihilism // Ideological currents of modern India. M.: Nauka, 1965. pp. 138–160.
* Pomerantseva E.V., Mints S.I. (compilers). Russian folk poetry: Reader. M.: Uchpedgiz, 1963. – 576 p.
* ** Potebnya A.A. Aesthetics and poetics. M.: Art, 1976. – 614 p.
* Poetry and prose of the ancient East (Book of World Literature. Series one. Vol. I) / General. ed. and will enter, Art. I. Braginsky. M.: Artist. lit., 1973. – 736 p.
* PPBES - Complete Orthodox Theological Encyclopedic Dictionary. T. I – P. M., 1992. – 2464 columns. [Reprint edition.]
* ** Propp V.Ya. Folklore and reality. Favorite Art. M.: Nauka, 1976. – 325 p.
* ** Propp V.Ya. Historical roots of fairy tales. L.: Leningrad University Publishing House, 1986. – 366 p.
* Psychological aspects of Buddhism. Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1991. 2nd ed. – 182s.
* Rabinovich B.S. Alchemy as a phenomenon medieval culture. M.: Nauka, 1979. – 392 p.
* Ranovich A.B. Primary sources on the history of early Christianity: Materials and documents. M.: OGIZ, 1933. – 191 p. [In 1990, a reissue of the book was published in Moscow along with the work of the same author “Ancient Critics of Christianity” (1935) with a foreword by I.S. Sventsitskaya].
* Ranovich A.B. Essay on the history of the Hebrew religion. Introductory Art. N. Nikolsky. M.: State. anti-religious publishing house, 1937. – 400 p.
* * Religion and Society: A Reader on the Sociology of Religion. Part I: For higher educational institutions / Comp. IN AND. Garaja, E.D. Rutkevich. M.: Nauka, 1994. – 300 p.
* ** Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Education, 1967. – 544 p.
* Rig Veda. Selected hymns / Translation, commentary. and will enter, Art. T.Ya. Elizarenkova. M.: Nauka, 1972. – 418 p.
* Rizhsky M.I. History of Bible translations in Russia. Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1978. – 208 p.
* Rozanov V.V. Apocalyptic sect (Khlysty and Skoptsy). St. Petersburg, 1914. – 208 p.
* Rozanov V.V. Favorites. Secluded. Fallen leaves. Fleeting. Apocalypse of our time. Letters to E. Gollerbach. Munich, 1970. – XLI, 564 p.
* Romanov E.R. Belarusian collection. Vol. V. Conspiracies, apocrypha and spiritual poems / Collected by E.R. Romanov. Vitebsk, 1891. – XVI, 452 p.
* Rubinstein R.I. Ptah // MNM. 1988. II. – 345 p. Rubinstein R.I. That // MNM. 1988[a]. I. S. 521–522. Tales of the beginning of Slavic writing / Enter, art., trans. and comment. B.N. Flory. M.: Nauka, 1981. – 199 p.
* Slobin D., Green J. Psycholinguistics. M.: Progress, 1976. – 350 p.
* * Dictionary of Biblical Theology / Ed. Xavier Leon-Dufour. Brussels, 1990. – 1287 + X pp.
* ** Soloviev B.S. Origen // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron. SPb. [b/g]. T. 43. pp. 141–145.
* ** Soloviev B.S. “Talmud” and the latest polemical literature about it in Austria and Germany // Soloviev. T. 6, 1911. P. 3–32.
* ** Soloviev B.S. Mohammed, his life and religious doctrine// Soloviev. T. 7, 1911. pp. 201–281.
* ** Soloviev B.S. Cabal // Soloviev. T. 10, 1911. pp. 339–343.
* ** Saussure F. de. Works on linguistics. M.: Progress, 1977. – 696 p.
* Steblin-Kamensky I.M. Preface // Avesta: Selected hymns. From Videvdat / Translation from Avest. I. Steblin-Kamensky. M.: Friendship of Peoples, 1993. pp. 3–12.
* Subbotin N.I. Materials for the history of the schism during the first period of its existence. M., 1878. T. IV; 1881. T. VI; 1885. T.VII.
* Talmud. Mishna and Tosefta. T. I–VI / Critical. lane N. Pereferkovich. Ed. 2nd, rev. and additional St. Petersburg, 1902–1904.
* * Telushkin, Rabbi Yosef. Jewish world: The most important knowledge about the Jewish people, their history and religion [Rus. lane]. Jerusalem - Moscow, 1992. - 575 p.
* Tikhonravov N.S. Abdicated books of ancient Russia: Op. Nikolai Savvich Tikhonravov. M., 1898. T. 1. Ancient Russian literature. pp. 13–84; 127–255.
* ** Tolstoy N.I. History and structure of Slavic literary languages. M.: Nauka, 1988. – 240 p.
* Tolstoy N.I., Tolstaya S.M. Folk etymology and structure of the Slavic ritual text // Slavic linguistics. X International Congress of Slavists. Sofia, Sept. 1988. Sov reports. delegations. M.: Nauka, 1988. pp. 250–264.
* Toporov V.N. Sanskrit and its lessons // Ancient India: Language. Culture. Text. M.: Nauka, 1985. pp. 5–29.
* Toporov V.N. Indo-Iranica: Toward the connection between the grammatical and the mythological-ritual // Western Asian collection. ?U. Ancient and medieval history and philology of the countries of the Near and Middle East. M.: Nauka, 1986. pp. 122–137.
* Toporov V.N. Towards the study of anagrammatic structures (analyses) // Studies on the structure of the text. M.: Nauka, 1987. pp. 193–238.
* Toporov V.N. About ritual: Introduction to the issues // Archaic ritual in folklore and early literary monuments. M.: Nauka, 1988. pp. 7–60.
* Toporov V.N. River // MNM, 1988[a]. T.P.S. 274–276.
* Toporov V.N. About one example of “speaking in tongues” in the Russian mystical tradition // Ethnolinguistics, 1988 [b]. pp. 160–164.
* Toporov V.N. About one Latin conspiracy (Tabella defixionis in Plotium): Toward the reconstruction of an archaic ritual “anatomical” prototext // Ethnolinguistics, 1988[c]. pp. 26–31.
* Trediakovsky V.K. A conversation between a foreigner and a Russian about ancient and new orthography and about everything that belongs to this matter // Op. Tredyakovsky. St. Petersburg, 1849. T. 3. Ed. Alexandra Smirdina. pp. 1–316.
* Trofimova M.K. From the Nag Hammadi manuscripts // Antiquity and modernity, M.: Nauka, 1972. pp. 369–379.
* Trubachev O.N. Etymological Dictionary of Slavic Languages / Ed. HE. Trubachev. T. I–XX. M.: Nauka, 1974–1994 (publication ongoing).
* Trubetskoy N. S. Common Slavic element in Russian culture // Questions of linguistics. 1990. No. 2. P. 123–139; No. 3. pp. 114–134.
* ** Fasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language / Transl. with him. and additional HE. Trubachev. T. I–IV. 2nd ed. M.: Progress, 1986–1992.
* Florensky, priest Pavel. Names. B/m.: Publishing house “Kupina”, 1993. – 320 p.
* Florovsky, Archpriest Georgy. Paths of Russian theology. Vilnius, 1991. – 602 p. [Facsimile reproduction of the 1937 Paris edition].
* Francis Skaryna i ago hour: Entsyklapedychny davednik. Minsk: Belarusian Savetskaya Encyclopedia, 1988. – 608 p.
* Friedrich I. History of writing. M.: Nauka, 1979. – 463 p.
* ** Frazer J. The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion. M.: Political literature, 1980. – 832 p.
* ** Frazer J. Folklore in the Old Testament. M.: Political literature, 1985. – 512 p.
* Heidegger M. Time and Being: Articles and Speeches. M.: Republic, 1993. – 447 p.
* Hall M.P. Encyclopedic exposition of Masonic, hermeneutic, Kabbalistic and Rosicrucian symbolic philosophy: Interpretation of the Secret teachings hidden behind the rituals, allegories and mysteries of all times / Trans. from English ed. 1937 Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1992. – 793 p.
* Nivyan T.V. Linguistic foundations of the Balkan model of the world. M.: Nauka, 1990. – 207 p.
* Ekonomitsev, Abbot John. Orthodoxy, Byzantium, Russia. Sat. Art. M.: Christian literature, 1992. – 233 p.
* Ethnolinguistics of the text. Semiotics of small forms of folklore. 1. Abstracts and preliminary materials for the symposium. M.: Institute of Slavic and Balkan Studies of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1988. – 204 p.
* ** Yagich I.V. Reasonings of South Slavic and Russian antiquity about the Church Slavonic language // Research on the Russian language. St. Petersburg, 1885–1895. T.I.S. 289–1070.
* ** Yagich I.V. History of Slavic philology. St. Petersburg, 1910. – 961 p.
* ** Jacobson R. Linguistics and poetics // Structuralism: “for” and “against”: Sat. Art. M.: Progress, 1975. pp. 193–230.