What is the influence of the church on life. Role of the Christian Church in the Middle Ages
Last Friday, the Minister of Education of Russiawas appointedOlga Vasilyeva. We offer you an interview with her, dedicated to the results of 2009 in church-state relations and church history. Then Olga Yurievna was the head of the Department of Religious Studies of the Russian Academy of Public Administration under the President of the Russian Federation.
Olga Yurievna, 2009 - the first year of the Patriarchate of His Holiness Cyril. Has the vector of church-state relations changed in connection with the arrival of a new Primate of the Russian Church?
I believe that Patriarch Kirill is a politician of enormous proportions. There are very few politicians equal to him. Of course, everyone would like the First Hierarch to be only a saint and prayer book, but this is an illusion. History shows that the Primate of the Church has always laid big problems on his shoulders. Let us remember not only Metropolitan Alexy, Patriarch Filaret, Patriarch Nikon, but also the first hierarchs of the 20th century: politics and church service have always gone side by side.
One cannot sharply compare the personalities of the Patriarchs. Patriarch Alexy remained in history as a peacemaker, he ruled the Church during the years of acute conflicts of the 1990s, and carried out his spiritual and political mission during the transitional period. Now a new phase has begun.
With the advent of Patriarch Kirill, with his oratorical talent and the obvious respect that representatives of various elites give him, in the media and in private statements on the Internet, the cliché that the Church is merging with the state, the church and the state are merging more and more often. authorities...
It is necessary to reassure those who are afraid, to explain to them that this, in principle, cannot be, because the Church itself needs it least of all. Firstly, the periods of the symphony, both in our history and in Byzantine history, were very short. The symphony, in the sense in which Justinian understood it, is no longer possible today.
Secondly, let me recall the words of Metropolitan Anthony (Vadkovsky), which he said shortly before his death to Tsar Nicholas II: “Your Majesty, least of all the Russian Church wants to be the ideological formulation of your policy.”
The third point that frightens many is the activity of religious structures, not only the Russian Orthodox Church. I believe that the influence of the Church on society will increase. The time in which we live is not easy from all points of view, and people need spiritual comfort, answers to their questions.
One of the few institutions after the president that is trusted by all polls is the Church. I think that both the Church and the authorities perfectly see the prospect of strengthening its influence.
Another question is how to build relationships. The church is separate from the state, but there are constant discussions about whether it is possible to consider the state secular with such a high percentage of citizens who call themselves believers.
All our denominations, primarily the Russian Orthodox Church, have adopted their social concepts, which clearly define in what areas of life joint activities with the state can be carried out. We remind readers that it is possible in all areas, especially those related to humanitarian activities in broad sense A: science, psychological health of the people, demographic problems and so on. The exceptions are those areas that involve the intervention of the Church in the internal affairs of the state, and the state - in the internal affairs of the Church.
A generation of church-going laity has formed who can and want to participate in the work of public institutions and go into power. There are even organizations that are going to "grow" such politically active lay people. At the same time, we know that all attempts to create Christian parties in Russia have failed. In Germany, where the "Christian-Democratic Party" is quite successful, it is called Christian simply historically. Is it possible to form some kind of Orthodox political bloc?
The question immediately arises, is it necessary? In my opinion, if a person is in any political or power structure, even in business, and has ideological, moral foundations, a moral beacon in his soul, then why should he participate in special parties? The party must be real.
The main agenda of church-state relations in recent years consisted of three topics - the introduction of subjects about religion in schools, the introduction of the institution of military priests into the army, and a whole range of economic issues related to church property, taxation of religious organizations. Today, mutual understanding has been reached on all three topics, or, in any case, positions have been clearly defined. What are the next topics of this agenda? What needs to be regulated between the Church and the state?
I think that the important issues that religious organizations and authorities should decide are the issues of charity, its legal basis, and issues of missionary activity.
For example, a religious group can live without registration. But if she does not declare herself in any way, she gathers to study the doctrinal foundations of the faith or something else, then can she be engaged in missionary activity? What does the concept of "missionary activity" generally include? Is it okay to preach to teenagers without parental permission? After all, at this age, children absorb everything like a sponge, but awareness, comprehension does not occur. These problems must be addressed.
The same with charity: what is included in the concept of charity? Will religious organizations be classified as organizations conducting socially significant activities, or will they not? After all, this is not their main task. Another important question is related to this: individual lay people - representatives of large religious organizations who invest a lot of effort in charitable work, should, in my opinion, receive some kind of encouragement from the state. These should be signs of respect - awards, publications in the press, so that people know about the painstaking work in hospices, orphanages, free canteens. The philanthropists themselves, perhaps, do not need the recognition of society, but society needs guidelines.
Let's talk about history, because you are a doctor of historical sciences. A significant event of this year related to historical science is the creation of a commission to counter the falsification of history. How do you rate it?
It is necessary to counteract falsification, first of all, in school and university textbooks and teaching aids. The most important thing is the social responsibility of the author, who writes for the younger generation, what are his worldview and moral guidelines when he sets out the facts. I have many questions about textbooks in which the Great Patriotic War is written in such a way that the facts of the atrocities of the Germans on Soviet territory are not mentioned.
- And in church history there are attempts of falsification?
In fact, there are no examples of direct falsification, there are different views. The bogey in the history of the Church with us is Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky). There are no other names. That's what they write about him, who is into what much - and red, and white, and green, and whatever.
And it also seems to me that there are some moments that we don’t fully understand, we don’t know. There are very few works about the 1980s. We know the Cathedral of 1988 only from official publications. And how many martyrologies have not yet been written! After all, they say that the war goes on until the last soldier is buried. Here she goes.
Now many people use the comparison that the current society travels in a car where the rear-view mirror is larger than the windshield ...
I believe that a country that rejects the past has no future. There have been many bad things in the past. But if we compare it with any other country, then everywhere there is light and dark, take at least the history of European states. The question is different. See how the same Europeans honor the history of their countries, how they honor patriotic examples and examples of civic courage. And if you denigrated everything, then the child will grow up and will denigrate everything that you do.
- But if there are so many blank spots in the history of the Church, even in recent decades, is it possible to move forward?
The fact is that with regard to the history of the Church, the situation is simpler. After all, we are studying the history of church organization in one or another period of time. And the Church, as the sacred Body of Christ, will not overcome the forces of hell.
- What Church history books released this year would you like to highlight?
For five years we have been working in the archives of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, and the result of this work was the book "The Russian Orthodox Church during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945", which was published this year by the publishing house of the Krutitsy Compound. This is a unique work, with a volume of more than 600 pages. Unfortunately, the price of this book in stores is quite high. There are many interesting studies based on regional material. I would also mention Tatyana Nikolskaya's book "Russian Protestantism and State Power in 1905-1991" published in St. Petersburg.
Interviewed by Ksenia Luchenko
Introduction
The Middle Ages lasted almost a thousand years - from the 5th to the 15th century. During this historical period, huge changes took place in world history: the colossus of the Roman Empire collapsed, then Byzantium. After the conquest of Rome, the barbarian tribes created their own states on the European continent with a determined national culture.
During this period, a lot of changes are taking place in the world in all areas of the development of states.
These changes did not bypass both culture and religion. Each nation in the Middle Ages had its own history of the development of culture, the influence of religion on it.
At all times, people had to believe in something, to hope for someone, to worship someone, to be afraid of someone, to explain the inexplicable in some way, and all peoples had their own unknown.
There were pagans, Muslims, Christians, etc.
At that time, Christianity was considered the main religion in the West and in Rus'. But, if the Russian Middle Ages were considered the XIII-XV centuries, then in the West it is the end of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, i.e.
most prolific formative years western European culture. In our country, at least, the first two of these three centuries fall on defeat, cultural isolation from the West and stagnation, from which Rus' is just beginning to get out at the very end of the XIV and XV centuries.
That is why I would like to separately understand how Christianity influenced the culture of Western European peoples and Rus'.
To understand how the influence of religion on culture took place, you need to understand how people lived at that time, what they thought about, what worried them, cared most of all then.
The assertion of Christianity as the state religion in some countries, starting from the 4th century, and its active spread led to a significant reorientation of all spheres of late antique spiritual culture into the mainstream of a new worldview system.
In the most direct way, all kinds of artistic activity were captured by this process. In fact, the formation of a new theory of art began, the prerequisites for which were already formed in the early Christian period. The Fathers of the Church made their significant contribution to this process.
General characteristics of the Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, natural economy was primitive, productive forces, technology were poorly developed.
Wars and epidemics bled the peoples. Any thought that ran counter to church dogmas was suppressed by the Inquisition, cruelly cracking down on bearers of heretical teachings and those suspected of complicity with the devil.
At this time, machines began to be used, windmills, a water wheel, steering, printing and much more appeared.
The very concept of "Middle Ages" can in no way be a kind of integrity.
Allocate Early, High Middle Ages and Sunset. Each period has its own characteristics of the spiritual sphere and culture.
The clash of cultural orientations gave rise to the multi-layered and inconsistent consciousness of medieval man. The commoner, living in the power of popular beliefs and primitive images, had the beginnings of a Christian worldview.
An educated person was not completely free from pagan notions. However, for all the undoubted dominant was religion.
The essence of the medieval way of relating to the world was determined by the divine model of the world, which was supported by all the means at the disposal of the church (and the state subordinate to it). This model determined the features of the medieval era.
The main features of this model are the following:
- a specifically medieval understanding of the Universe, where God is the main world creative force, human intervention in the divine work was unacceptable;
- Medieval monotheism, in which the Universe was thought of as absolutely subordinate to God, to whom only the laws of nature and the divine cosmos are accessible.
This is a force infinitely more powerful than man and dominated him;
- Man is an insignificant, weak, sinful being, a speck of dust in the divine world, and particles of the divine world are accessible to him only through the atonement of sins and the worship of God.
The central event of the medieval model of the world was God. The totality of the super-complex social hierarchy of events of the medieval world fit into this event.
A special place in this hierarchy was occupied by the church, which was entrusted with a divine mission.
The main population of the Middle Ages were peasants.
2. The process of Christianization in the Middle Ages
The ideological position of the church was that it was actually on the side of the masters, being, moreover, the largest owner itself. And yet the church tried to smooth out conflicts in society, preaching equality before God, humility and the sanctity of poverty.
The poor experience troubles and hardships on earth, but they are God's chosen ones, worthy of the Kingdom of Heaven. Poverty is a moral virtue.
The medieval church recognized labor as a consequence of original sin. Labor for enrichment was condemned. The work of an ascetic - work for the eradication of idleness, for the curbing of the flesh, for moral perfection was considered a charitable deed.
2.1 Process of Christianization in Europe
In Europe, society in the minds of people was divided into three main social strata: churchmen, peasants and knights.
The social ideals were the life of the saints and the heroic deeds of the warrior. The process of Christianization proceeded with great difficulties. The state used its authority and power to eradicate paganism and plant Christianity. The peasant was excluded from the system of public law rules, he could not be a warrior. People who remembered their free ancestors experienced their bondage hard.
The people associated their freedom and independence with the pagan faith, and Christianization with the power and oppression of the state.
The most versatile measures were taken to eradicate pagan superstitions. Particular attention is paid to rituals associated with the cult of the forces of nature. Divination, spells, divination were also considered forbidden and severely punished.
The Church in the fight against paganism used not only punishment, but also careful adaptation.
Pope Gregory I was a supporter of the gradual replacement of pagan religious stereotypes with Christian rites. He advised not to destroy pagan temples, but to sprinkle them with holy water and replace idols with altars and relics of saints. Animal sacrifice should be replaced by feast days when animals are slaughtered for the glory of the Lord and for food. He recommended instead of the pagan detour of the fields, made for the harvest, to organize processions to the Trinity.
The life of peasants in the Middle Ages was determined by the change of seasons, each person goes through the same cycle of events.
Constant employment and orientation to traditions and rituals made it impossible to go beyond the cyclicality.
Christianity, instead of the cyclic flow of time, natural for the peasant, imposed a linear historical flow of time with the Super-event of the Last Judgment at its end. Fear of retribution for sins becomes a powerful factor in initiation to Christianity.
The reverse process was also carried out - Christianity assimilated paganism and subjected it to changes.
This was due to several reasons. One of them was that the priests themselves were often of peasant origin and in many ways remained pagans. Another reason was that the worship of saints was connected with the needs of the majority of the population, unable to understand the abstract God and needing to worship a visible, understandable image. The clergy exalted the saints for piety, virtue, Christian holiness, the flock valued in them, first of all, their ability to magic: the ability to work miracles, heal, protect.
Medieval man existed on the verge of non-existence: famine, wars, epidemics claimed many lives, almost no one lived to old age, infant mortality was very high. Man felt an urgent need to protect himself from dangers approaching from all sides.
The Church could not but take over the functions magical protection person.
Some magical rituals passed into Christian rituals almost unchanged. Moreover, the church even multiplied and complicated the ritual life. The veneration of God was carried out in the Christian church with the help of the sacraments, such as communion, baptism, and the priesthood. Also used - blessed water, bread, candles. Consecrated objects were used at home and in everyday life. Theologians saw in all this only symbolism and did not recognize their supernatural power.
The common people used them, first of all, as amulets: not for cleansing from sins and communion with God, but for protection from diseases, slander, and damage.
Peasants used church gifts even to heal livestock.
Excessive ritualization emasculated the spiritual essence of faith, mechanized communication with God. Rituals degenerated into mechanical, meaningless repetition. Believers, in order to be cleansed of sins, could do without a high mental attitude, with one formal performance of rituals.
The Church could not abolish superstitions, rituals and rituals that distort the foundations of the Catholic faith, for they were an integral part of the mentality of a medieval person, and without them the Christian doctrine could not be accepted.
2.2 The process of Christianization in Rus'
The first centuries of Russian medieval culture. Coming mainly to the period of Kievan Rus, they are permeated with the bright joy of recognizing the new, discovering the unknown.
In the light of the new worldview, the world of nature, the man himself, and their relationships appeared different before the Slav, not to mention the spiritual one, which sanctified all things and phenomena that had long been familiar for a long time with a new light.
The traditional rather narrow horizons - geographical and historical, social and spiritual - have extended to infinity.
Realizing all this, and most importantly, being the goal and crown of creation, the image of the Creator himself, a person rejoiced at the discovery of the world with childish spontaneity. Joyful worldview filled his whole life and work, it spiritualized his esthetic consciousness; finally, it acted as an important stimulus for the rapid rise of culture in Kievan Rus.
Christianity in the Middle Ages
The role of the church in the life of the Western European medieval society, which many historians call the Christian society or the Christian worlds, was all-encompassing: religion and the church filled the entire life of a person of the feudal era from birth to death.
The church claimed to rule society and performed many functions that later became the property of the state. The medieval church was organized on a strictly hierarchical basis. It was headed by the Roman high priest - the pope, who had his own state in Central Italy, archbishops and bishops in all European countries were subordinate to him.
These were the largest feudal lords, who possessed entire principalities and belonged to the top of feudal society. Having monopolized culture, science, and literacy in a society consisting mainly of warriors and peasants, the church possessed enormous resources that subordinated to it the man of the feudal era. Skillfully using these means, the church has concentrated enormous power in its hands: kings and lords, in need of her help, shower her with gifts and privileges, try to buy her favor and assistance.
At the same time, the church pacified society: it sought to smooth out social conflicts, calling for mercy in relation to the oppressed and destitute, for an end to lawlessness, for the distribution of alms to the poor. Poverty was even given moral priority. The Church attracts under its protection many peasants in need of patronage, provides them with land for settlement, and encourages the liberation of foreign slaves, who at the same time fell into dependence on it.
In the restless feudal times, people sought the protection of the monastery.
The monastery was also the most exacting owner, preserving the most severe forms of feudal exploitation. The Church was the largest landowner in the feudal world and tirelessly increased its material wealth. The monasteries were among the first to switch to a commodity economy, to production for the market, take treasures and money for safekeeping, and provide loans. Under the auspices of the church, uniting with church holidays, there are fairs and markets, pilgrimages to holy places, merge with trade trips.
Continuing to use economic power for its own purposes, the church in the XI-XIII centuries. in fact, he leads the trade and colonization movement of Europeans to the East (“crusades”), organizing huge collections of money to finance them. After the "campaigns" ceased, these funds began to be used to strengthen the papal treasury.
The church organization reaches its highest power in the XII-XIII centuries, turning into a powerful financial organization with unlimited power over its structures and exceptional political influence.
Standing on conservative positions, the church taught that each member of society should live in accordance with his legal and property status and not seek to change it. The ideology of the three "estates", which spread in Europe in the 10th century, put forward monks, people devoted to prayer and standing above society, in the first place.
Role of the Church in the Middle Ages
There was a gradual aristocratization of the clergy and monasticism.
However, along with the official church doctrine in the Middle Ages, popular religiosity was widespread, going far beyond the church and Christian dogma.
God was perceived as a mysterious force present in sacred places, the personification of goodness and justice. This popular religiosity was shared by the bulk of the priests, with the exception of the church elite - learned bishops and abbots. Of great importance was the belief in intermediaries between God and people - angels and saints, in whom the laity were more attracted not by Christian virtues, but by the miracles they performed, perceived as proof of their power and holiness.
However, one cannot fail to note the positive role of the church and Christian doctrine in the development of medieval civilization.
The church cared for the sick, the poor, the orphans and the elderly. She controlled the education and production of books. Thanks to the influence of Christianity, by the 9th century a fundamentally new understanding of family and marriage was established in medieval society, the familiar concept of “marriage” was absent in the late antique and ancient German traditions, and then there was no concept of “family” familiar to us.
In the era of the early Middle Ages, marriages between close relatives were practiced, numerous marriage ties were common, which were inferior to the same consanguineous ties. It was with this position that the church fought: the problems of marriage, as one of the Christian sacraments, from the VI century become almost main theme many theological writings. The fundamental achievement of the church of this period of history should be considered the creation of a marital cell, as a normal form family life that still exists.
Even technological progress in medieval Europe was associated, according to many scientists, with the spread of Christian doctrine and, as a result, with a change in man's attitude to nature.
We are talking, in particular, about the rejection of the pre-Christian system of prohibitions and taboos that hindered the development of agriculture: nature has ceased to be an object of religious worship and a source of fear. The new economic situation, which developed with technical improvements and inventions, contributed to a significant increase in the standard of living, which was very stable over several centuries of the feudal era.
Thus, we can conclude that the Middle Ages was a natural and necessary stage in the development of Christian civilization.
In medieval European society, the personality of a person as a whole was valued higher than in Antiquity, if only because the medieval worldview, imbued with the spirit of Christianity, did not single out a person from the outside world, because of the tendency to a holistic vision of the world. Consequently, one cannot speak of the spiritual dictatorship of the church over medieval man, which supposedly hindered the development of the individual.
In Western Europe, the church usually played a stabilizing, conservative role, that is, it just provided favorable conditions for the development of the individual. It is impossible to imagine the spiritual quest of medieval man outside the church. It was the knowledge of the world and God, inspired by church ideals, that gave rise to the colorful, diverse, vibrant culture of the Middle Ages.
It was the church that created universities and schools, encouraged theological disputes and printing.
The Spread of Christianity in the Early Middle Ages in Western Europe and the Christianization of Rus': Similarities and Differences.
Christianity was the core of European culture and ensured the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. For a long time in the historical and cultural literature, the view of the Middle Ages as the "dark ages" dominated. The foundations of this position were laid by the enlighteners.
However, the history of the culture of Western European society was not so unambiguous, one thing is certain - the entire cultural life of Medieval Europe of this period was largely determined by Christianity, which already in the 4th century. from being persecuted it becomes the state religion in the Roman Empire.
From a movement in opposition to official Rome, Christianity turns into a spiritual, ideological pillar of the Roman state. At this time, at the Ecumenical Church Councils, a number of leading provisions of the Christian dogma were adopted - the symbol of faith.
These provisions are declared binding on all Christians. The basis of Christian teaching was the belief in the resurrection of Christ, the resurrection of the dead, the Divine Trinity.
The concept of the Divine Trinity was interpreted as follows.
God is one in all three persons: God the Father, the creator of the world, God the Son, Jesus Christ, the redeemer of sins, and God the Holy Spirit, were absolutely equal and co-eternal with each other.
Despite the strong discrepancy between the ideal and the real, yet the very social and everyday life people in the Middle Ages was an attempt, a desire to embody Christian ideals in practical activities.
Therefore, let us consider the ideals towards which many efforts of people of that time were directed, and note the features of the reflection of these ideals in real life.
In the Middle Ages, the theological concept of culture (Greek theos - god) was formed, according to which God acts as the center of the universe, its active, creative principle, the source and cause of everything that exists.
This is due to the fact that the absolute value is God. Medieval painting world, the religiosity of this culture is fundamentally profoundly different from all previous ones, i.e. pagan cultures.
God in Christianity is One, Personal and Spiritual, that is, absolutely non-material. Also, God is endowed with many virtuous qualities: God is All-Good, God is Love, God is Absolute Good.
Thanks to such a spiritual and absolutely positive understanding of God, a person acquires special significance in the religious picture of the world.
Man - the image of God, the greatest value after God, occupies a dominant place on Earth. The main thing in a person is the soul. One of the outstanding achievements of the Christian religion is the gift of free will to man, i.e. the right to choose between good and evil, God and the devil.
Christianity in the Middle Ages
Due to the presence of dark forces, evil, Medieval culture is often called dualistic (dual): on one of its poles - God, angels, saints, on the other - the Devil and his dark army (demons, sorcerers, heretics).
The tragedy of man is that he can abuse his free will. This is what happened to the first man, Adam. He shied away from the prohibitions of God towards the temptations of the devil.
This process is called the fall. Sin is the result of man's deviation from God. It is because of sin that suffering, war, sickness, and death entered the world.
By Christian teaching on his own, by his own strength, a person cannot return to God. To do this, a person needs a mediator - a Savior. The saviors in the medieval Christian picture of the world are Christ and His Church (in Western Europe - Catholic). Therefore, along with the category of sin, the problem of saving the soul of every person plays an important role in the picture of the world of the Middle Ages.
Thus, in the Christian ideology, the place of man is occupied by god the creator, the place of the concept of "culture", so valued in antiquity, is occupied by the concept of "cult".
From an etymological point of view, this concept also has the meaning of cultivation and improvement. However, the main emphasis in this concept is transferred to care, worship and reverence. This refers to the veneration of the highest, supernatural power, which controls the fate of the world and man. According to the Christian concept, the meaning of human life is to prepare for a true life, after death, the other world. Therefore, everyday, earthly, real life loses its intrinsic value.
It is considered only as a preparation for eternal life, after death. The main emphasis is on the afterlife, afterlife retribution. Salvation is not given to everyone, but only to those who live according to the gospel commandments.
The whole life of a person in the Middle Ages stands between two reference points - sin and salvation. To escape from the first and achieve the latter, a person is given the following conditions: following the Christian commandments, doing good deeds, avoiding temptations, confessing one's sins, an active prayer and church life not only for monks, but also for the laity.
Thus, in Christianity, the requirements for the moral life of a person are tightened.
The main Christian values are faith, hope, love.
Christianity became the spiritual basis of medieval culture, however, in various ethno-geographical, political, socio-economic conditions, regional variants of medieval Christian cultures arose.
The most prominent were the cultures of Byzantium and the medieval West.
Already from the III century. n. e. the differences between the Eastern and Western Roman Empire became more and more noticeable: the West was in decline, and the position of the East was favorable, since its territories were not subject to invasions by barbarians who aspired to Rome - the "eternal city".
In 330 Emperor Constantine I moved the capital to the city of Constantinople, "New Rome". In 395, the Roman Empire finally collapsed.
This contributed to the isolation of the Western Church, headed by the Roman Bishop (Pope), from the Eastern Churches, headed by the Patriarchs of Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem. The rivalry for influence between these churches ended in 1054 with a schism - the "Great Schism".
Both directions - Catholicism and Orthodoxy - have a number of features in the doctrine, cult and structure of the religious organization, reflecting the specifics of the economic and political development of feudal relations in both regions.
Catholic Church strictly centralized, has a single world center - the Vatican (in Rome), which is the residence of the Pope. In Catholicism, the pope is considered the vicar of Jesus Christ on earth and the successor of the apostle Peter.
He is infallible in matters of faith and morality, his power is higher than secular power and ecumenical councils. Secular power in the person of the emperor was given care of earthly welfare and the political unity of society. The secular ruler is only an instrument in the hands of the church, and only a papal blessing puts him above other people. Moreover, the pope has the right not only to crown, but also to depose the emperor.
The rise of the papacy was facilitated by the barbarians, who took over the empire and inherited the religion of the vanquished.
They reckoned not with the emperor, but with the Pope, securing for him the right to direct and lead the Christian world to the highest goal - eternal salvation. In the 8th century a whole Papal State was formed, which included the lands of the Roman region and the Exarchate of Ravenna.
The theocratic claims of the papacy were inspired to a large extent by the ideological principles of Augustine the Blessed (354-430). In his main work "On the City of God" Augustine outlined his vision of history and forms of government. Using the metaphor of two cities - heavenly and earthly - he presented the concept of the church - the city of God - as a hierarchical, strictly disciplined organization that has the exclusive right to be an intermediary between God and people, the highest judge in spiritual and worldly matters.
The source of Catholic doctrine is considered not only the Holy Scripture, but also the Holy Tradition - the judgments of the popes in matters of faith and the decisions of the ecumenical councils catholic church.
The clergy take a vow of celibacy (celibacy). A feature of Catholicism is also the cult of Our Lady - the Holy Virgin Mary, the recognition of dogmas about her immaculate conception, bodily ascension. Catholicism is characterized by a magnificent theatrical cult, a wide veneration of all kinds of relics.
Catholicism was characterized by extreme intolerance towards "apostates".
This was expressed not only in polemics with heretical theologians, but also in physical reprisals against heretics. The same Augustine developed a number of recommendations on the use of various kinds of repression against dissidents, including torture and execution.
Then the Inquisition was born - a holy tribunal, whose victims for a long time were free-thinking, scientific knowledge, belonging to another faith.
Orthodoxy spread mainly in the Middle East, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe. The basis of this doctrine is the Bible and Holy Tradition. It comes from the recognition of the triune God - the creator and ruler of the universe, afterlife, posthumous retribution, the redemptive mission of Jesus Christ, who opened the possibility for the salvation of mankind, on which lies the seal of original sin.
Byzantium became the center of Orthodoxy.
The nature of the relationship between the secular authorities and the church was distinguished here by a significant originality in comparison with the West. The union of the church with the state was built on the leading role of the imperial power, which had sacred functions and had the right to participate in solving church issues.
The political and ideological support of the church by the state contributed to the fact that bishops and monasteries turned into large landowners.
Role of the Christian Church in the Middle Ages.
In Byzantium, they owned not only land, but later also craft workshops (ergasteria). The ministers of the church were exempted from taxes, trade duties, military service and received a tithe - one tenth of state revenues. Kievan Rus in 988 adopted exactly this model of Christianity, which had important consequences in the history of Russia, affecting, first of all, the development of statehood, national self-consciousness, culture and international prestige.
finally formed the differences between the Orthodox and Catholic churches. These differences were not only religious-dogmatic, but also socio-economic and political in nature, not only reflecting differences in the social structure and culture of Byzantium and the West, but also demonstrated stable socio-psychological differences.
Western religiosity is characterized by deep exaltation. The beliefs of the Greeks were characterized by an abstract philosophical rationality, adherence to transcendental ideas. The excited imagination of the Latins constantly rushed to the sufferings of Christ on the cross, the terrible torments of sinners in hell. In the Orthodox Church, the joyfully enlightened moments of the life of Christ, his transfiguration and resurrection were brought to the fore; the souls of believers rushed to the divine light, to the victory of good over evil.
A serious blow to Byzantine civilization was dealt by the so-called Crusades- trips to the East, organized by Western European feudal lords and the Catholic Church.
Having declared the goal of campaigns in the Middle East to be the fight against the "infidels" (Muslims) and the liberation of the Holy Sepulcher and the Holy Land (Palestine), the crusaders directed their fourth campaign against Byzantium. The capture of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204 led to its collapse and the formation of the Latin Empire (1204-1261). The Catholic Church made great efforts to spread the Catholic faith among the Greeks. But at the same time, Byzantine culture began to influence enlightened people from the West.
Among medieval Western European intellectuals, the ideas of Hellenic self-consciousness grew and strengthened. Many Byzantine treasures and artistic values migrated to the West. Byzantine emperors from the Palaiologos dynasty restored the empire. In the XIV century.
Byzantine art experienced a new and final period of upsurge. Yet the final centuries of the empire's existence were characterized by economic instability, territorial losses, endless feudal strife, and the growing Turkish onslaught.
There was a clear polarization of two main currents in Byzantine ideology - the pre-Renaissance, associated with the birth of the ideas of humanism, and the religious-mystical.
Communication of Byzantine scholars with Italian scientists, writers, poets influenced the formation of early humanism in Italy.
It was the Byzantine thinkers who were destined to open the wonderful world of Greco-Roman antiquity to Western humanists, to acquaint them with the classical ancient literature, with the genuine philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. The term "Byzantine humanism" denotes that cultural, spiritual-intellectual, psychological and aesthetic complex, which, in its characteristics, can be considered an analogue of Italian humanism. The widest knowledge of Byzantine philosophers, theologians, philologists, rhetoricians aroused the boundless admiration of Italian humanists, many of whom became students and followers of Byzantine scholars.
Byzantium fell under the onslaught of the Turks. However, the contribution of this civilization to world culture is appreciated.
First of all, it should be noted that Byzantium became a kind of bridge between Western and Eastern cultures. It had a profound and lasting impact on the development of many countries of medieval Europe.
Byzantine cultural influence was most intense in those countries where Orthodoxy was established. First of all, this concerns Russia.
When preparing this question, it is necessary to understand the terminology (Christianity, Orthodoxy, Catholicism, church, theology, temple, clergy, liturgy) and categories related to the religious life of the Eastern Roman Empire and the medieval West.
One should think about why the development of Christianity in Byzantium differed significantly from the Western path: what reasons contributed to this? Can the Byzantine version of Christianity be considered fundamentally different from the Roman Catholic one, or is this difference illusory and based on non-religious factors?
Think about and highlight the following questions: Ecumenical Councils and their role in the formation of Christian dogmas; the specifics of Byzantine Orthodoxy (Eastern Christianity); the development of Orthodox theology in the works of the "fathers of the church"; the phenomenon of iconoclasm; theocratic concept of imperial power, the union of the emperor and the church; the structure and organization of the Byzantine church; features of the Byzantine Orthodox cult; Byzantine monasticism and its role in the social and political life of the empire.
At the end of the analysis of this set of problems, one should think about the extent to which the life of the empire was influenced by religious consciousness, how the religious sphere interacted with secular manifestations of life, whether the contradictions between the Orthodox understanding of the world and pagan ideas that existed in the ordinary consciousness of Byzantium inhabitants were resolved.
On the problem of the split in Christianity and on the issue of the emergence of its two branches - Catholicism and Orthodoxy - one should pay attention to the following points: what were the reasons for the split of the Christian church; what way of religious salvation was offered by the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Church; what are the most significant differences between these two faiths; what functions did the church perform in the era of the collapse of the Roman Empire and the formation of barbarian states; which allowed the Catholic Church to become a powerful political force; what is a theocracy; how the ideal of theocracy was embodied in Augustine's theory of the "two cities".
The following questions are also important: when did the papacy appear in Western Europe; what contributed to its strengthening; why the spiritual authority of the papacy began to decline over time; what role did the institution of monasticism play in religion; what were the main tasks of the monasteries and monastic orders organized by the church; what is heresy; what is the reason for the long existence of numerous heresies in the Middle Ages; How did the Christian church treat "false teachings"?
In conclusion, summarize and draw conclusions as to what is the fundamental difference in the development of the cultures of the medieval West and Byzantium. It is also necessary to single out the aspect of the unity, the commonality of these cultures in the world historical and cultural process.
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The influence of the church on the development of society in the Middle Ages
SAINT PETERSBURG LEGAL INSTITUTE
PROSECUTION GENERAL OF RUSSIA
Department of State and Legal Disciplines.
ABSTRACT
Course: History of the national state and law.
On the topic: The influence of Christianity on the development of law and the state in Kievan Rus.
Completed by: student of group No. 312
Toyov S.Yu.
Lecturer: Associate Professor Pavlov V.S.
Saint Petersburg.
1. The influence of the Church on the development of society in the Middle Ages.
2. Acceptance of Christianity in Kievan Rus.
3. Formation and development of the Church in the Russian state.
4. Monasteries in Kievan Rus.
5. Influence of the Church on the formation of statehood.
6. Church and law.
7. Kievan Rus - the first Russian state.
8. List of references.
The influence of the church on the development of society in the Middle Ages.
The period of the emergence of Kievan Rus fell at the time of the beginning of the so-called Classical Middle Ages.
During this period, the birth and formation of modern peoples took place: the French, Germans, British, Poles, Bulgarians and, of course, Russians. The Middle Ages created a new urban way of life, high examples of spiritual and artistic culture, including institutions scientific knowledge and education.
Medieval society is predominantly an agrarian society based on manual labor and feudal social and economic relations.
1.3. The role of the church in medieval society
This society is characterized by a stable and inactive system of values and ideas, based on religious precepts and the teachings of the church.
The Church in the Middle Ages was a practically independent, autonomously managed political and spiritual organization.
In her activities, she was guided by her own rules, developed for herself on the basis of biblical traditions and Christian tradition, which formed a special system of canon law. Due to the significance of Christian rules for the medieval religious society, canon law obliged with its requirements not only the clergy and people of the church, but also all believers, including the state and political institutions of the “Christian states”.
Such a special meaning of church rules was based on the doctrine of the exclusive, “single-saving role of the church”, developed by one of the fathers of the church, the largest spiritual and political thinker of the 4th century, St. Augustine. In order to fulfill this great mission, the Church was initially endowed not only with the rights of spiritual teaching, but also with coercion, with the duty to “root out the sinfulness of the deeds and thoughts” of believers. The sources of canon law were the same for all substantial canons of Christianity.
The starting point was the Holy Scriptures, including the Old and New Testaments. The works of the church fathers of Basil the Great, Gregory the Bogosolva, St. Augustine, an interpretation of the Gospel and the theological doctrine of Scripture was given, the main rites and dogmas of the church were established, the rules for the performance of episcopal and priestly positions, the criteria for church sacraments, including marriage, and the main violations of church rules were described. Decrees of church councils (congresses of bishops) established the most important rules in doctrine, evaluation of heretical teachings and deviations from the church canon.
The codes created on the basis of late Roman law were directly borrowed from the practice of church courts.
In Europe, the Middle Ages is the period of the formation of a new form of Western civilization - the European Christian civilization.
It is formed on the territory of the former Roman Empire, which split into two parts: the Eastern (Byzantine) and Western Roman Empire.
Christianity in antiquity was not a single organization.
On the territory of the Roman Empire, there were a number of Christian churches that had doctrinal, ritual and organizational differences. Between the leadership of these churches there was a fierce struggle for hegemony in the Christian world.
This struggle was most actively waged by the head of the Western Roman Church, the Pope of Rome, and the head of the Byzantine Church, the Patriarch of Constantinople.
In the 9th century, the dogmatic and administrative isolation of the Eastern Church began, which ended in the 11th century. The formal act of splitting Christianity into the Catholic and Orthodox churches was the mutual anathema (church curse) to which the Pope of Rome and the Patriarch of Constantinople betrayed each other on June 16, 1054.
Despite the internal contradictions of the Christian churches, Christianity is the spiritual foundation of the entire European civilization.
In the conditions of the collapse of the Roman Empire, its political and economic institutions, the decline of culture, Christianity and its organizations - the Catholic and Orthodox Church - for many centuries were the only spiritual and social institution common to all countries and peoples of Europe.
Christianity formed a single worldview, moral norms, values and patterns of behavior, and the Catholic and Orthodox churches were not only spiritual, but also very influential political organizations. Therefore, the process of the formation of European civilization to a large extent was a process of Christianization - the familiarization of pagan peoples with Christian culture, beliefs and customs, entry into Christian organizations - Catholic and Orthodox churches.
1. List the stages of European medieval history, name their chronological framework. What is new in the life of society appeared on each of them?
2. Name the largest medieval states in Asia, America and Africa. What were the features of the Middle Ages in these countries?
3. List the empires of the Middle Ages. Which of them survived by the end of the 15th century?
4. What was the contribution of the Arab Islamic civilization to the history and culture of the medieval world?
5. What is a class society? What were the position and duties of each class in medieval society?
6. What do you think, did the separation or class division unite the medieval society?
7. What associations were created by people of the same class or occupation in medieval Europe? Why did people need such associations?
8. In what areas of life in the Middle Ages did cities play a particularly important role? Why?
9. What was the influence of the church on the life of medieval man?
Did the position of the Catholic Church in Europe change during the Middle Ages?
10. In your opinion, what new teachings, events, people of the late Middle Ages brought the New Age closer?
11. Many scientists call modern world direct heir to the Middle Ages. What facts can support this point of view?
2. Large groups of people with their own rights and responsibilities. 3.System
measures aimed at isolating
- or the state. 4. State owning colonies. 5. Aspiration
ensure the primary role of the church and religion in the life of society. 6.
Liberation from prejudice, oppression, the abolition of restrictions, the equalization of women
in rights with men. 7. Creation of a large, heavy industry. 8.
Opposition, opposition of one's views, one's policy to any
other policy.9. Urban population growth. 10. Entry of foreigners into
any country for permanent residence. 11. Relocation, resettlement,
associated with a change of residence. 12. Limiting the influence of the church on everything
spheres of society.
2) An agricultural tool with which the earth was loosened. (4 letters)
3) An agricultural implement with which a medieval man could plow the land deeply. (5 letters)
4) Agricultural crop, the distribution of which in Europe began with Spain. (3 letters)
5) An agricultural culture that won the sympathy of farmers in Europe only towards the end of the 8th century. (4 letters)
6) An agricultural crop grown in Europe before the spread of wheat. (4 letters)
PLEASE ANSWER ONE QUESTION
1. Where did the Finno-Ugric tribes live? How did the natural and climatic conditions of the habitats affect the occupations, life and beliefs of the Finno-Ugric tribes?
2. What was the relationship between the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes? What was the impact on each other?
3. Tell us about the emergence of the Volga Bulgaria. What do you see as the property and differences between the Volga Bulgaria and the Khazar Khaganate?
4. What attracted the Eastern Slavs to Byzantium?
The Church in medieval society played a very important role. With its religious and moral authority, it promoted the idea of the divine origin of royal power, and also called on the people to humility and humility. The church parish was one of the most important forms of organizing social communication between people. It exercised ideological and moral control over the population.
The Catholic Church was built as an authoritarian-monarchist organization. All high priests were appointed by the Vatican. The power of the popes was considered higher than the power Ecumenical Councils(meetings of the higher clergy). The religiosity of the population strengthened the role of the church in society, and the economic, political and cultural activities of the clergy contributed to maintaining religiosity in a canonized form.
One of the main tasks of the church was the task of forming and supporting the religious worldview of life. It was based on the requirement of mortification of the flesh and liberation of the spirit, which is contained in the philosophy of asceticism. Under these conditions, the church cultivated the institution of monasticism. The first form of monasticism was hermitage on the principle of solitude in the desert, following the example of St. Anthony, later - association in communities, following the example of St. Pachomius. Then the black and white clergy appear. In 529, Thomas of Naursia organizes the first communal monastery in Montecassino (Italy). Contempt for the world, expressed in the desire for monastic life, is one of the most important features of medieval culture.
Naturally, in real life it was not possible to completely neglect everyday human activity, which is why the church created an extensive system of regulation of social life by limiting its manifestations to various rules, regulations, customs, etc. At the same time, in order to maintain the unquestioning authority of the church, to preserve the purity of its dogmas, emphasis is placed on the development of not rational, but mainly emotional perception of reality and the foundations of dogma. On the one hand, any manifestation of carnal passions was recognized as sinful. They were replaced by a passionate, sometimes fanatical love for Christ and the Virgin Mary. On the other hand, irreconcilable hatred towards the enemies of Christianity was cultivated. Belief in visions, miraculous healings, visits to people by evil spirits were an integral part of individual and social consciousness. People lived in an atmosphere of miracle, which was considered an everyday reality.
In the struggle for the religious unity of Western Europe, the need to maintain its authority and the inviolability of the position of the Catholic Church. the constant protection of the official church doctrine in the field of dogma and cult from numerous heresies was required. Heresies themselves arose in the early Middle Ages. At that time, they largely reflected the process of the formation of the church, its hierarchical structure, so that heretical movements were even headed by representatives of the episcopate. Among the most common early heresies, one can single out, for example, Monophysitism (denied the doctrine of the dual, divine-human nature of Christ), Nestorianism (proved the position of the “independently existing” human nature of Christ), Adoptian heresy, which was based on the idea of adoption (adopcio) by God of the human son of Christ.
During the heyday of the Middle Ages, heresies were already directed against the very institution of the church, a significant part of the clergy (gr. kleros - the general name of the ministers of the church, against the all-pervasive church regulation of life. Such heresies include the heresies of the Cathars (Italy, Flanders, France, XI-XIII centuries .), Waldensians (France, late 12th century), Lollards (Antwerp, especially widespread in England), Albigensians (France, 12th–13th centuries), and others. The heretical movements of the classical Middle Ages mainly reflected the interests of the poor classes, opposed church landownership, preached the philosophy of asceticism.At the same time, they put forward ideas directed against individual dogmas of the church.
The Catholic Church, at its height of power, mercilessly suppressed heresies. To combat heresies at the end of the twelfth century. a system of special church tribunals was created - the Inquisition (from Latin inqusitio - search). From the 13th century it became an independent institution under the supreme authority of the popes. The activities of the Inquisition were directed not only against heretics, but also against various manifestations of freethinking, witchcraft, quackery, etc. Denunciation was widely used. In the process of secret interrogation in the dungeons of the Inquisition, confessions of guilt were pulled out from the victims, usually with the help of torture. In addition, for intimidation, church tribunals practiced auto-da-fei (lat. actus fidei, Spanish auto de fe, lit. - an act of faith) - public executions, burning heretics, because it was believed that fire most completely destroys the criminal. Significant was the fact that part of the costs of maintaining the Inquisition was covered from the sums confiscated from the executed heretics.
The mendicant monastic orders, the Franciscans and Dominicans, became another instrument of the church against heretics. Both orders were founded in the 13th century. From the representatives of the order of the "brothers-preachers" - the Dominicans, who were also called the dogs of the Lord, the courts of the Inquisition were usually formed. The Franciscan order was proclaimed mendicant: the monks were ordered to live only on alms, dress in coarse clothes, walk barefoot, gird themselves with a rope and not have any property. His goal was to distract from the heresies of the urban poor.
In addition, the practice of the Catholic Church includes the sale of indulgences - evidence of the remission of sins. developed a whole doctrine of indulgences. The price of indulgence depended on the severity of the crime committed, there was a kind of "price list" of prices for absolution. Proceeds from the sale became an important source of replenishment of the church treasury. Over time, the trade in indulgences takes on the character of shameless profit and indirectly begins to contribute to the spread of vices. This activity of the Catholic Church greatly contributed to the spread of heretical movements.
People of the Middle Ages lived in constant expectation of the terrible Judgment and the end of the world, in fear of the devil. For the sake of strengthening its own authority, the church exacerbated these fears, often played on them, and also pointed to the "servants" of the devil: Muslims, Jews, women, witches and sorcerers. Dominicans in the fifteenth century It has been claimed that one in three Christians is a witch or sorcerer. At the same time, the book "Hammer of the Witches" was written, which described who the witches were, how to expose, judge and punish them. Witch persecution peaked between 1560 and 1630. Hundreds of thousands of people were burned during this time. The total number of victims of the Inquisition is estimated by some historians at several million people.
Religious motives often played a major role in wars of conquest. So, in the XI-XIII centuries. the so-called crusades of the Western European feudal lords to the East were undertaken. In the autumn of 1095, Pope Urban II called for the first time in Western Europe for crusades. The official goal of the Crusades was the liberation of the "Holy Sepulcher". However, along with this, the crusades were called upon to solve other problems.
By the 11th century in Western Europe, the land was already almost completely divided between secular and church feudal lords. According to custom, only his eldest son could inherit the land of a lord. This principle of inheritance is called majorat. The younger sons formed a numerous layer of feudal lords who did not have land and wanted to get it in any way. The Catholic Church, not without reason, feared that these knights would not encroach on her vast possessions. In addition, the Catholic Church, led by the Pope, sought to extend its influence to new territories and increase their income at their expense. Rumors about the riches of the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, which were spread by pilgrims (pilgrims) who visited Palestine, aroused the greed of the knights. The motto of the crusaders was the appeal of the Pope: "Let those who did not spare themselves to the detriment of their flesh and soul crown with a double reward." The liberation of the "Holy Sepulcher" was accompanied by the seizure of overseas lands, cities, and wealth by the crusader knights.
As a result of the first campaigns (the First Crusade took place in 1095–1099), the crusaders managed to create their own states on the territory of Palestine. The first on the fertile lands of the Holy Land, as the Europeans then called Palestine, was the Kingdom of Jerusalem (on the territory of Southern Syria and Palestine), then the Principality of Antioch, the county of Edessa and Tripolitana were founded. The peasants who came with the knights received almost nothing, and therefore, in the future, an ever smaller number of them participated in the crusades.
In order to strengthen the possessions of the crusaders, shortly after the First Crusade, special organizations were created - spiritual and knightly orders. The Order of the Templars (or Templars) was created to protect the pilgrims going to Jerusalem. The Johnites (or Hospitallers) maintained the hospital of St. John of Jerusalem, where the sick, poor pilgrims, and wounded knights were treated. At the end of the XII century. an order arose dedicated to the Virgin Mary, most of whose members were from Germany, so it was called Teutonic (or German). The orders were semi-military, semi-monastic associations. Under the monastic cloak of the “order brothers” (for the Templars it was white with a red cross, for the hospitallers it was red with a white cross, for the Teutonic knights it was white with a black cross), knightly armor was hidden. The tasks of the orders were the defense and expansion of the possessions of the crusaders, as well as the suppression of the actions of the local population. The orders had a centralized structure. They were led by the Grand Masters and reported directly to the Pope. The orders enjoyed many privileges and eventually became the richest landowners not only in the East, but also in Western Europe.
In the XII century. the knights had to gather for war many times under the sign of the cross (Second Crusade - 1147-1149; Third Crusade - 1189-1192) in order to hold the occupied territories. However, all crusades failed. When at the beginning of the XIII century. At the call of Pope Innocent III, the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) was organized, the French, Italian and German knights did not fight against the Muslims, but fell upon the Christian state of Byzantium. In April 1204, the knights captured and plundered its capital, Constantinople. The fall of Constantinople was followed by the capture of half of the Byzantine Empire, where the crusaders founded their own state - the Latin Empire, which lasted only 57 years (1204-1261).
The crusades brought many disasters, they not only failed to achieve their direct goal, but also brought death to hundreds of thousands of their participants and were accompanied by the expenditure of colossal funds of European states. At the same time, they stimulated the development of contacts with the East. The influence of the Islamic world (Egypt, Morocco, Spain, Persia and even India), where the crusaders visited, manifested itself in acquaintance not only with a new religion - Islam, but also with a new culture.
The significance of the Crusades for Western Europe was great. Navigation reached unprecedented prosperity. Trade relations expanded, the main conductors of which were Italian merchants from Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Amalfi and others. Money flowed into Europe, which led to the decline of natural economy and contributed to the economic revolution and the development of commodity-money relations. Many useful plants were brought to Europe from the east, such as saffron, apricot, lemon, pistachios (these words themselves are Arabic). Rice came into wide use, sugar appeared. Works of the highly developed weaving industry in the East were imported in significant quantities - chintz, muslin, expensive silk fabrics (velvet, satin), as well as carpets, jewelry, paints, etc. Acquaintance with these items and the method of their manufacture led to the development of similar industries in Europe (for example, in France - carpet weaving according to oriental patterns, and carpets were called "Saracens"). In the East, many items of clothing and household items were borrowed, which still bear Arabic names: a skirt, an alcove, a sofa, etc. Arabic concepts and words denoting them penetrated and entrenched in European languages: admiral, amulet, talisman, customs, etc. .
The Crusades introduced Western scholars to Arabic and Greek science (particularly the writings of Aristotle). The geographical knowledge of Europeans expanded significantly, and mathematics, astronomy, medicine, natural science, and history also made progress. In European art from the era of the Crusades, the influence of Byzantine and Muslim art is noticeable. For example, horseshoe-shaped and pointed arches, shamrock-shaped arches, flat roofs appear in architecture; in artistic crafts, the arabesque ornament (so named because it looks like Arabic script) becomes popular. Thanks to the crusades, poetry was enriched - new plots, new poetic forms appeared.
QUESTIONS
1. How did the church influence people's minds? What was the influence of the church on the development of medieval Christian culture?
The consciousness of the people of medieval Europe was inextricably linked with the Christian religion. The church preached the basics Christian morality, following which would allow a person to hope for salvation. She condemned people for their desire for profit, opposing this vice with the ideals of poverty and asceticism. Defending the idea of the equality of all people before God, the clergy at the same time divided believers into clergy and laity. The clergy were distinguished by a special quality - the priesthood, which came from Christ himself and was passed down from generation to generation during a special ceremony. It was believed that the believers were not able to find the way to salvation on their own, without priests, to understand the word of God. The salvation of the souls of believers could only be collective, in the bosom of the church. Therefore, the Bible was forbidden for ordinary laity; only clergymen were allowed to interpret it.
Christianity was the core of medieval European culture. The main purpose of art was considered to be the glorification of the deeds of God, a reminder to people of their earthly duty, of retribution to the righteous and punishment of sinners. Earthly carnal beauty was considered sinful, art was dominated by the canon - special rules for the image. Ancient art as pagan art was persecuted. By order of the clergy, ancient temples, statues, and manuscripts were destroyed. Some ancient monuments of literature and art survived due to the fact that Christians used them to their advantage. These included, for example, the works of Aristotle, some buildings turned into churches.
Monasteries were the centers of culture in Western Europe for a long time. The monks managed to preserve the little of the ancient and early Christian heritage that was not destroyed and destroyed by the barbarians. They rewrote books, preserving knowledge for future generations, kept chronicles - records of the most important events that occurred in a given year. At the same time, although the monasteries themselves were a kind of islands of culture in the midst of a sea of illiteracy, many monks were uneducated. The level of education of parishioners was minimal.
Medieval Christian culture was based not on the written, sealed word, but on oral sermons, prayers, and traditions. The man of the Middle Ages used to consider the surrounding reality as a kind of text, a system of symbols containing the highest meaning. Therefore, medieval art, especially painting, sought to interpret the Bible in its own way.
The world, according to the ideas of the European of the Middle Ages, was a kind of arena of confrontation between heavenly and hellish forces. Art was supposed to bring a person closer to God. As a result, it was the temples - "the houses of God", decorated with frescoes and statues with images of saints, containing libraries with religious literature, that were the concentration of the artistic culture of the Middle Ages.
2. How did the idea of a medieval person about the world and its structure differ from modern ideas?
In the absence of reliable scientific knowledge about nature, the idea of the universe of medieval man was based on religion. The picture of the world was based on the complete, unconditional opposition of God and nature, heaven and earth, soul and body.
According to the ideas of the European of the Middle Ages, the world was a kind of arena of confrontation between heavenly and hellish forces, and everyone was absolutely sure of the possibility of miracles. Hence the strict observance of religious rites, which were supposed to help man rule over nature.
It was believed that the "City of Heaven" is built in accordance with the hierarchy of its inhabitants. Above all is God, below are the apostles, archangels, angels and other heavenly beings. This hierarchy is repeated by the inhabitants of the "Earthly City": the pope, cardinals, priests and ordinary laity. At the same time, earthly worldly life was opposed to heavenly afterlife. The Church taught that all the pleasures of earthly life are deceit, for the world is the arena of Satan's tricks. Main purpose human life- preparation for the afterlife, for salvation. Between the heavenly and earthly worlds there is an invisible staircase, along which people strive to get to heaven. Angels help the righteous achieve their desired goal, while sinners break loose and fall into hell.
Representation modern man about the world are based on science, not religion.
3. What influence did knightly and urban culture have on the development of the "world of ideas" of the modern West?
Chivalric and urban cultures had a great influence on the development of the "world of ideas" of the modern West. They brought secularity. Secular culture, being one of the components of Western European medieval culture, remained Christian in character. At the same time, the very image and style of life of chivalry and townspeople predetermined their focus on the earthly, developed special views, ethical norms, traditions, and cultural values.
The duties of the knight included not only the protection of the honor and dignity of the overlord. Tradition required the knight to follow certain "rules of honor", the so-called "code of knightly honor". The basis of the code is the idea of fidelity to duty, the code regulated the rules of combat, etc. Contrary to religion, which glorified asceticism, chivalrous culture sang earthly joys, expressed hope for the triumph of justice already in this, earthly life.
A new way of life, a new vision of the world, a new type of people were born in the cities. The citizen, independent of any authority other than the magistrate, saw the world differently than the peasant. Striving for success, he became a new type of personality.
4. What was the originality of the peasant culture?
Peculiarities of peasant culture:
Close connection with nature;
Respectful attitude to the traditions and customs of antiquity, a measured order of life, in which new ideas and values \u200b\u200bare hardly approved (conservatism);
The great importance of the community;
Preservation of the remnants of ancient beliefs, which led to a mixture of Christianity and pagan superstitions.
5. Why did cities become the centers for the formation of new spiritual values of Europeans?
Because it was the inhabitants of the city - bankers, merchants, artisans, doctors, lawyers - who were enterprising people and more prone to innovation. Their well-being depended on the ability to conduct business and quickness. In the city, work and wealth were signs of human dignity.
Life made the townspeople inquisitive. The merchant needed information in various fields of knowledge: law, geography, arithmetic, foreign languages. The craftsman had to know the account and the letter, to understand the properties of materials - metals, wool, leather, hemp, fur. The townspeople highly valued their own experience, knowledge, skills and abilities borrowed from each other.
A system of secular education emerged in the cities.
TASKS
2. Read the poem by Bertrand de Born:
I look forward to the battle as a boon from the boons:
In her valor - salt,
Everything else is nil
Next to her. Soldier
Knows no loss.
All life is a battle suffering:
Camping to break the bivouac,
Wall the cities
Get more helmets and swords -
Lord, do not
Wait for the best of the lot:
love delights
The ringing of Latin is sweeter to me.
To what genre medieval literature does this work apply? By what signs can one judge this? What social class do you think the author of the poem belonged to?
This poem belongs to the genre of chivalric literature. This is evidenced by the desire of the author to participate in battle and campaigns, to show his valor and courage. I think that the author of this poem belonged to the knightly class.