Sufi concept of man. Ethical prerequisites for the science of “business communication” Sufism as a religious and ethical teaching
“Chapter I. Analysis of the status and role of women in the system of Islamic worldview..12 Chapter II. The ethical side of the concept of love in Sufism.28..."
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Introduction………………………..………………..…………………..…..…......3
Chapter I. Analysis of the status and role of women in the Islamic system
worldview…………………………………….…………..………..….12
Chapter II. The ethical side of the concept of love in Sufism………………..28
1. Sufism: brief description and basic concepts……………...….28
2. Moral perfection as the main component
Sufism…………………………………………………………….……………………….40
2.1. Basic principles of Muslim ethics….………………………..40
2.2. Sufi ethical teaching……………………………………….…48 2.2.1. The perfect person………………………………………………………55 2.2.2. Free will and Divine predestination……………….58 2.2.3. Good and evil…………………...…………………………………62 2.2.4. Moral improvement………..…………...…………67
3. The ethical aspect of the philosophy of love in Sufism………………….…..…71
3.1. Understanding of love in Islam………………….…….…………………….71
3.2. Love as a creation of beauty in Sufism
3.2.1. Definition of love……………………………………………………..…....88 3.2.2. Basic concepts of love lyrics…………………………......92 3.3.3. Earthly and Divine Love in Sufi Works.....96 Chapter III. The place and role of women in Sufism………………………...…..106
1. Medieval Sufi women. Characteristic features of the concept of “love” in women’s mysticism………………………………………………………...106
1.1. Medieval Sufi women…………………………………….106
1.2. Characteristic features of the concept of “love” in women’s mysticism…………………………………………………...…121 2. “Women’s” Sufism in the context of modern women’s movements…..129
3. Sufi women and the “feminine” presence in the Sufi worldview and Sufi practice
Conclusion..………………………………………………………..……………………….....172 References...………………………… …….…178 Introduction In the light of growing globalization and migration, which, in turn, cause a “revaluation of values,” the issue of interaction between different peoples, guided by different normative and value concepts, becomes relevant. Until now, many people are captive of prejudices that distort ideas about Muslim culture. The view of Islam as an exclusively militant religion has led to very negative attitudes towards Muslims and Islamic culture in general. Apparently, such opinions originate in the Middle Ages, during the era of the Crusades. And if the people of that time can be understood, since they had little information about Islam and Muslim culture, then the presence of such an opinion among modern Europeans is difficult to understand. At the same time, Muslim culture for centuries was not only inextricably linked with the culture of Western Europe, but also shared with it very significant achievements in the field of science and art. Thus, it is very important to identify the religious, cultural and ethical basis of Islam as objectively as possible, which will help correct distorted ideas about it.
A more detailed study of the moral foundations of Islam can help reduce the intensity of religious and national hatred, which is very common in our time. This work reflects the important provisions of Muslim ethics, and also touches on the most difficult issues to understand, including the question of the role and status of women in Muslim society. The problem of the rights and responsibilities of Muslim women occupies an important place in the study of the Muslim worldview. In addition, the analysis of the status of women in Muslim society touches on a range of issues that are directly related to Muslim ethics and moral standards.
It is impossible to imagine the study of Muslim ethics without studying the morality that lies at the basis of the Sufi worldview. Sufism, as a mystical-ascetic movement of Islam, made a great contribution to the formation of the spiritual foundation of the entire Muslim society. The idea of spiritual improvement through love of God opens up new facets of the spiritual world of Islam.
For a long time, the main role in the social and cultural life of Islamic society was assigned to men. The role of women was insignificant and, for the most part, limited to household chores.
Studying the female Sufi experience, as well as the influence that women had on the Sufi worldview and Sufi practice, is not only valuable from a cultural and historical point of view, but also helps to better understand the place and role of women in Muslim society.
These considerations and a number of other, no less important, factors, which include the insufficient study of this issue in domestic ethics, determine the relevance of the topic of this dissertation research. Three large layers can be distinguished in it: consideration of the place and role of women in Islam; identification of ethical principles related to the teaching of love in the works of Sufis and other Muslim thinkers; clarifying the place and role of women in the Sufi movement, the meaning of women's Sufi experience, and the understanding of women and the “feminine” in Sufi teachings. Each of these layers occupies a certain place in the structure of the work and is based on significant sources and research.
It should be noted that this work presents a secular-rational interpretation of Islam and Sufism, which allows, as far as possible, to build a consistent and consistent model of general Islamic and Sufi ethics based on philosophical and religious views.
The study of Islamic philosophy and ethics is impossible without referring to two main sources - the Koran and the Sunnah. In this work, we mainly used the Koranic narration translated by M.-N.
Osmanova. The choice of this translation is due to the fact that, unlike other available translations of the Koran, made by I.Yu. Krachkovsky, G.S. Sablukov and E. Kuliev, it is semantic. M.-N. Osmanov tried to reproduce the meaning of the original text and find a suitable translation for figurative meanings, relying on the authoritative tafsirs of the Koran. Also, when necessary, translations by G.S. were used. Sablukov and E. Kuliev. This work also refers to the materials of the two most significant sources of hadith - “Sahih” Bukhari and “Sahih” Muslim.
The question of the position of women in Islam is raised in many works concerning the socio-philosophical aspects of Muslim society, but there are not many objective studies on this topic. Often this topic is touched upon in one way or another in general studies of Islam.
For example, in the works of A. Masse, G.M. Kerimova. Works specifically devoted to the consideration of the position of women in Muslim society deserve special attention. For example, a study by G.R.
Baltanova, who considers the place and role of women in Islam as the focus of social and ethical problems. Also worth noting is the article by L.N. Frolova, which focuses on the status of Muslim women, a collection of translations by E. Sorokoumova, books by O. Ersan and M. Mutahhari, as well as a dissertation research by Z.M. Baraeva. It is also necessary to mention the works of A. Wadud, L. Silvers, U. Bahrie, review by D. Vainis, which analyze the role of women in Muslim society not only from the traditional positions of the Koran and Sunnah, but also give it modern significance. Among these works, the study of S. Murata deserves special mention, which is distinguished by a broad cross-cultural analysis and non-standard elaboration of the problem. In addition to scientific works, this study also mentions practical manuals that help to understand and evaluate the real situation of women in the Muslim world, their place and role. An example is the reference book by H. Khattab, a manual of the Moscow Islamic University.
When analyzing Sufi teachings, we used the works of A.
Schimmel, M.T. Stepanyants, A.D. Knysh, K. Ernst, J. Trimingham, A.A.
Khismatulina, A.Kh. Zarrinkuba, I.P. Petrushevsky, T. Andre, A.J.
Arberry, W.A. Drozdova, M. Validdin, J. Subhan. Particularly noteworthy is al-Hujwiri’s treatise “Revealing what is hidden behind the veil.
The oldest Persian treatise on Sufism. (Kashf al-mahjub li arbab al-qulub)" and "Treatise of al-Qushayri on Sufism", which are the oldest generalizations of Sufi spiritual experience. General Islamic ethical ideas and ethical teachings of the Sufis were studied on the basis of the works of A.V. Smirnova, A.A. Guseinova, as well as I.R. Nasyrova, U.
Chittika, S. Safavi.
In the study of the concept of “love” among Sufis and other Muslim thinkers, in addition to the research of modern scientists, primary sources certainly play an important role, which include the treatises of Ibn Arabi, Ruzbihan Bakli, al-Ghazali, al-Jili, Abu Bakr ar-Razi, Ibn Sina, Shihab ad-Din al-Suhrawardi, al-Farabi, as well as the poetic heritage of Nizami Ganjavi, Saadi and Jal ad-Din Rumi.
It is noteworthy that the topic of women’s participation in Sufism and the “feminine”
element in Sufi teachings has not yet been sufficiently developed, especially in domestic ethical research. Based on the fact that the topic of women's experience is quite complex and multifaceted, for its analysis it is necessary to use sources that differ in their structure, scientific approach and style of presentation. Thus, we can explain the proximity of fundamental scientific works and articles that, as it may seem at first glance, deserve less attention, but which are no less important for this work. Mention should be made here of articles and studies by K. Helminski, J. Nourbakhsh, M. Smith, articles by S. Sheikh, H. Lutfi, L. Silvers, M. Dakeik. The works of A. Schimmel “The World of Islamic Mysticism” and “My Soul is a Woman” deserve special attention, as well as the studies of W. K. Chittick and S. Murata “The Worldview of Islam”. Interesting remarks about female Sufi practices are contained in the work of R. Sultanova, as well as in the articles of L. Thomas, G.A. Khizrieva and A. L.-A. Sultygova. Works written by Sufi women themselves deserve special mention, for example, the book by I.
Tweedy's Abyss of Fire: One Woman's Experience of Liberation through the Teachings of a Sufi Master, based on the diary of her spiritual journey; works by F. Malty-Douglas, which are based on the writings of Sufi women, for example, “A Woman and Her Sufis” and “Medicine of the Soul”;
works and activities and A. Yashlavskaya.
Thus, the object of the dissertation research is the ethical teaching of Sufism based on the love of God. The subject of the study is the “female” aspect of Sufi ethics, as well as the participation of women in the formation of Sufism and the formation of its teachings.
The purpose of the dissertation research is to analyze the understanding of the place and role of women and the feminine principle in the philosophy of love and the ethical teachings of the Sufis.
Based on this, the main objectives of the study can be identified:
To clarify general Islamic ideas about the place and role of women in society and compare them with Sufi ideas about women;
Based on the study of Sufi treatises and with the help of research by domestic and foreign scientists, reveal the main provisions of the Sufi worldview and the importance attached to the “feminine” principle in it;
analyze the content of general Islamic ethical ideas and compare them with the ethical component of Sufi teachings;
Consider the concept of love in Islam and Muslim philosophical teachings, give a comparative analysis of the ethical aspect of the philosophy of love in Sufism;
Determine the place and trace the role of women in Sufi teachings;
Identify the influence and analyze the content of female images in the didactic works of Sufis and Sufi poetry;
This study uses the hermeneutic method of interpreting available Sufi texts as its main method.
General philosophical principles and research methods are also applied:
comparative analysis and systematic approach, the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, methods of induction and deduction. In addition, a comparative approach is used. The theoretical basis of the study was the works of famous Western European, Arab, Iranian, Turkish and domestic scientists on the topic under consideration.
Scientific novelty of the research:
the most well-known provisions concerning the place and role of women in Muslim society are reviewed and analyzed;
General Islamic ethical concepts and Sufi ideas about morality, which are based on the concept of love and moral improvement, are analyzed and compared;
The spiritual experience of Sufi women has been studied and theoretically generalized;
for the first time in domestic ethics, on the basis of a comprehensive study, including philosophical, socio-cultural and ethical aspects, an analysis of the place and role of women in the Sufi movement and Sufi teaching was carried out;
the features of modern female Sufi experience and its influence on cultural and moral ideas in Islamic society and Sufism are identified and analyzed;
In this regard, the following provisions are put forward for protection:
1. The basis of Sufi teaching can be expressed in the following ideas:
obedience to the Divine Will; the desire to unite with the Beloved; return to the state of “original purity” (fitra); avoiding the “traps” (obstacles) of the earthly world;
2. Sufism reworked the basic moral norms of Islam, shifting the emphasis to individual self-improvement through asceticism and love of God;
3. Love is seen as the basis of Sufism, which links together the moral perfection of man and the beauty of Divine creation;
4. Taking into account the characteristics and traditions of Muslim society, female Sufi experience is often shown through the prism of male experience;
Women's spiritual experience had a great influence on Sufi 5.
worldview as a whole: predominantly women combined ascetic practices with the philosophy of love, becoming the true embodiment of the “creation of beauty.”
The theoretical and scientific-practical significance of the dissertation research is that the conclusions obtained in this work can be used in the process of developing problems of methodology for further study of Islamic mysticism, as well as for teaching social disciplines, preparing and delivering special courses on mysticism and ethical teachings of the East. The provisions contained in the dissertation make it possible to expand ideas about the place and role of women in Sufi teaching, as well as in Muslim culture in general.
The main provisions of the work were published by the author in the form of scientific articles in publications reviewed by the Higher Attestation Commission of the Russian Federation, and also presented in reports at a scientific and theoretical conference within the framework of the “Days of St. Petersburg Philosophy” of St. Petersburg State University, 2009, 2010, 2012; “Female images and the concept of “feminine”
in the philosophy of Ibn Arabi and Rumi", international scientific conference "The role of women in history, society, politics and science" (March 26-27, 2015, St. Petersburg Mining University, St. Petersburg State Technological Institute (Technical University), g .
Saint Petersburg); while giving a public lecture “Women in Sufism” at the Russian Christian Humanitarian Academy on November 12, 2013.
The dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. The introduction discusses the relevance, objectives, goals and main provisions of this study, and also outlines the theses submitted for defense.
The first chapter analyzes the position and role of women in Muslim society. As a result, it is discovered that the variability of Muslim texts leaves room for interpretation, which often depends on the generally accepted norms and foundations of a particular group of Muslims characteristic of a given area.
In addition, women's rights are not properly respected, so the real situation of women in Muslim society, both throughout its history and in the modern world, remains quite difficult.
The second chapter examines the concept and basic ideas of Sufism, and also analyzes Sufi ethics and the theory of love. As a result, the conclusion is formulated that the ascetic practices that underlie the Sufi ethical concept are closely related to the concept of love.
Love is seen as the basis of Sufism, which links together the moral perfection of man and the beauty of Divine creation.
The third chapter analyzes the place and role of women in Sufism throughout its history. It also examines the spiritual experience of modern Sufi women and analyzes the difference between women's Sufi experience and men's.
As a result, a great influence of female spiritual experience on the Sufi worldview as a whole was discovered:
predominantly women combined ascetic practices with the philosophy of love, becoming the true embodiment of the “beautiful creation.”
In conclusion, the results are summarized and general conclusions of this study are drawn.
The bibliographic list of used literature consists of 200 titles, including 57 in a foreign language. The total volume of the dissertation is 192 pages.
Chapter I. Analysis of the status and role of women in the system of Islamic worldview Muslim society (ummah), as a system of socio-legal relations, is built on Sharia - religious law, expressed in the Koran and Sunnah and supplemented by fiqh (i.e. works on the interpretation of Muslim law various religious schools). The basis of society is the family. The family, according to the Muslim worldview, is a union of a woman and a man who joined together to procreate and observe religious law.
It is traditionally believed that the life of a Muslim woman is mainly focused on internal social ties, that is, on the home, family and numerous relatives, while the life of a man is “external”, including work, friendly meetings, politics, etc. This understanding often leads to misinterpretation of the place and role of women in the ummah. In this regard, S. Murata in his study “The Tao of Islam” writes: “According to the deep-rooted but erroneous opinion of Western scientists, of all the patriarchal religions, Islam is the most patriarchal”1.
The Islamic religious system and jurisprudence assign certain rights and responsibilities to men and women. The Koran says: “Husbands are guardians of [their] wives, since Allah has given some (i.e. husbands) an advantage over others (i.e. women) and because husbands spend money from their property [to support their wives].”
(Quran, 4:34). Despite the fact that men are given the right to dominate the family, especially in those areas that relate to family finances, there are a number of general requirements, the observance of which is mandatory for everyone without exception (though with some reservations).
Murata S. Tao of Islam: a sourcebook on gender relationships in Islam thought. Albany: Suny Press, 1992.
Quote according to Baltanova G.R. Muslim. M.: Logos, 2005. P. 78.
There are only five basic requirements: testimony of faith (shahadah), prayer (salat), fasting (sawm), donation (zakat) and pilgrimage (hajj).
Women's religious responsibilities have their own nuances, which, as a rule, are a consequence of the moral standards of Muslim society. For example, women are exempt from fasting and prayer when they are in a state of “uncleanness.” Pregnant and nursing mothers are also exempt from fasting. Note that in Islam there are so-called “voluntary” fasts, however, “a woman is prohibited from observing an additional fast if it infringes on the rights of her husband and interferes with his affairs; to fast, she must obtain the consent of her husband” 2.
As for zakat, there are two ways for a woman to make such a donation: take money from the family savings, after asking her husband about it, or pay funds from personal property, which usually consists of mahr (i.e. a gift that the woman received upon marriage).
For women, performing Hajj also has a number of restrictions.
A woman must be accompanied by her husband or a relative classified as a mahram (that is, close blood relatives - men with whom Islam prohibits a woman from marrying, for example, father, son, brother, grandfather, nephew, as well as father-in-law and foster brother). In addition, “if a woman knows that after the Hajj she will experience financial difficulties, and her husband is poor, the pilgrimage is not necessary for her”3.
Note that for women, Hajj replaces Jihad, which is often called the sixth pillar of Islam. The generally accepted translation of this word as “holy war” is inaccurate; rather, it is “struggle in the path of Allah.” First of all, this refers to the fight against one’s own “I” or “jihad” Kerimov G.M. Sharia: The Law of Muslim Life. Sharia's answers to modern problems.
DILYA, 2009. P. 129.
Right there. P. 83.
nnafs”, which consists of fighting one’s own selfishness and sinful thoughts. In a narrower sense, jihad means war in the proper sense of the word (hence one of the meanings of the word “shahadah”
– “martyrdom for the faith”4 and a derivative of this word – shahid, i.e. “who sacrificed himself for the faith and died a martyr’s death”5).
Shahada also includes the testimony “given by a Muslim who fights for his faith and dies for it in a holy war”6. Thus, the reward of a woman who performed the Hajj is equal to the reward of a man who fought for the faith. “Pregnancy and childbirth can also amount to a form of jihad, since there is a hadith that says that a mother who dies during childbirth dies the death of a martyr (martyr): “A woman who dies during childbirth along with her baby, becomes a martyr” (narrated by Ahmad and At-Tabarani).”7.
Starting a family is the sacred duty of any healthy Muslim, be it a man or a woman. “And [one of] His signs is that He created you from dust. And only then, having become the human race, you spread [across the earth]. [Another of His signs is that He created for you wives from among yourselves, so that you might find peace in them, and He established love and favor [mutually] between you" (Quran, 30:20-21). As one of the authoritative interpreters of hadith notes, “it is known that marital love is much more durable than other manifestations of love.”8 The act of creation of men and women in the Koran was simultaneous, as stated at the beginning of Surah an-Nisa: “O people !
Fear your Lord, who created you from one living creature and from it created a mate for it, and from both of them [produced and] dispersed [throughout
Bogolyubov A.S. Shahid // Islam. Encyclopedic Dictionary / Answer. editor S.M. Prozorov. M.:
Science, 1991. P. 296.
Masse A. Islam: Essay on History. M.: Kraft+, 2007. P. 99.
Khattab H. Handbook of a Muslim woman. M.: Umma, 2004. P. 26.
al-Saadi, Abd ar-R. b. N. Interpretation of the Holy Koran / Transl. E. Kuliev. M.: Umma, 2008. P. 86.
light] many men and women. Fear Allah, in whose name you claim [your rights] against each other, and [fear] to sever family ties [among each other]. Indeed, Allah is [always] watching over you."
(Quran, 4:1). Al-Saadi says that it is worth paying attention to the fact that “the revelation about the creation of a couple from a person indicates to him the need for spouses to observe obligations to each other, which are determined by the fact that a woman descended from a man.”9 Social and legal status of Muslim women , reflected in the Quran and Sunnah, is grouped around the different roles of women in the ummah, which, in essence, constitute a single whole. Firstly, a woman is a direct participant in the religious life of society, guided by moral standards of behavior. At the same time, as noted by L.N. Frolov, “the specific content of a woman’s behavior, like other subjects of Muslim society, is largely determined by the system of norms and values developed on the basis of the Koran.”10 It seems that the main role of a Muslim woman is still that of a wife and mother. In the Sahih of Muslim it is said: “it is reported from the words of Abu Hurayrah that the prophet said: “A woman is taken as a wife because of four [things]: because of her wealth, or origin, or beauty, or religion, seek the one who is committed to religion, [otherwise you will not see the good]!”
11 The basic rights and responsibilities of a Muslim woman are set out in Surah an-Nisa (“Women”), which says: “Virtuous women are submissive to Allah and their [husbands] and preserve the honor and property that Allah ordered to protect. And those wives whose infidelity you are not sure of, admonish [first], [then] avoid them on the marital bed and [finally] beat them. If they obey you, then do not offend them, not al-Saadi, Abd ar-R. b. N. Interpretation of the Holy Koran / Transl. E. Kuliev. M.: Umma, 2008. P. 310.
Frolova L.N. Status of women in Islam // Bulletin of the Adygea State University.
Series 1: Regional studies: philosophy, history, sociology, jurisprudence, political science, cultural studies, 2009. No. 2. pp. 148-154.
Muslim. Sahih. A summary compiled by Imam al-Munziri. M.: Umma, 2011. P. 324.
look for reasons to find fault” (Quran, 4:34). Al-Saadi comments on this verse as follows: “A wife is dependent on her husband, and his duties include taking care of the one whom Allah ordered him to protect and protect. She must be submissive to her Lord and her husband.
That is why it is further said that a righteous wife is always submissive to Allah Almighty and submissive to her husband even in his absence. She protects his honor and property, and she succeeds in this because Allah protects her and supports her.”12 Thus, the husband, as the head of the family, is responsible for her, so first “he should give his wife instructions, i.e. explain to her the attitude of Allah towards those women who obey their husbands, and towards those who disobey them; tell her about the reward for obedience to her husband and the punishment for disobedience to him. If the wife stops disobeying, then he will achieve what he wants. Otherwise, he should not go to bed with her and not have sexual intercourse with her until this brings the desired result. If such a measure of education also does not bring any benefit, then the husband is allowed to beat his wife without causing her severe suffering.”13
It should be noted that there is a lot of controversy regarding measures to admonish wives both within the Muslim community itself and outside it, especially with regard to such an aspect as “beating”. "M. Assad, referring to collections of hadiths (Abu Dawud, Nasa'i, Ibn Majah, etc.), claims that Muhammad condemned wife beating, that he recommended it only as a last resort (i.e. in case of adultery), and then only in a “mild form”, without causing bodily harm.”14 As O. Ersan writes, “a man must treat his wife with respect. Must let her participate in matters relating to the family and take her under his guardianship, like al-Saadi, Abd ar-R. b. N. Interpretation of the Holy Koran / Transl. E. Kulieva. M.: Umma, 2008. P. 343.
–  –  –
Koran / Transl. from Arabic and commentary by Osmanov M.-N. O. M.-SPb: Dilya, 2008. P. 143 (Hereinafter, the translation of the Koran according to M.-N. Osmanov, unless otherwise indicated).
befits a real man.”15 As noted by A.A. Engineer, “if men earn money, then women do housework, and in this sense they seem to complement each other. This position is completely justified and must be defended.”16 The family union of a man and a woman is not only a socio-legal relationship, but is also based on religious morality and moral social norms. From this point of view, we can say that the concept of “family” in the Muslim context ceases to be only a “private matter”, since intra-family relations, one way or another, affect other members of the ummah. In Muslim society, a woman personifies the honor and dignity of the family, which is why her behavior is especially carefully monitored. It is believed that a woman is a temptation for a man, so her image outside the home should be chaste and not attract undue attention to herself. Hijab (a female form of clothing, from the Arabic “hajaba”, which means “to hide”, “to become invisible”, “to protect”)17 creates a veil that prevents free communication between men and women. It represents a kind of border that separates a man and a woman who are “forbidden” from each other. At the same time, there is often a feeling that men are unable to cope with the temptation of female beauty, as a result of which women are obliged to wear a certain, asexual type of clothing. As K. wittily noted.
Amin, it turns out that if a woman poses a danger to a man, then “women have more control over their sexual impulses than men; thus, the segregation of women is aimed, rather, at protecting the male sex.”18 Moreover, “if men are afraid that women may not be able to resist them Ersan O. Woman in Islam. Her rights and dignity. M.: Publishing group "SAD", 2009. P. 49.
Engineer A.A. The Rights of Women in Islam. London: Hurst and Company publishing house, 1982. P. 62.
Baltanova G.R. Muslim. M.: Logos, 2005. P. 272.
Quote by Sukdeo R. Secrets behind the burqa. Islam, women and the West. St. Petersburg: VARNAVA, 2005. P. 43.
masculinity, why don't they themselves wear a veil? Perhaps men should be considered less resistant to temptation than women?”19 Thus, if the husband (or any member of the family or community) finds the behavior (or dress, speech, etc.) of a woman unacceptable or inappropriate , then measures must be taken to reason with the wife. Then the algorithm prescribed in the Koran comes into force: first, admonish, then excommunicate (which actually means a temporary divorce and possibly separation for some time until all disagreements are resolved), and, finally, the very last thing, hit.
At the same time, some researchers express the opinion that in the above verse the verb daraba (Arabic on the door), “knock”, “set up posts”, “think”, “refuse something”, “make guesses”, “set a deadline” "and so on.
20) may not have exactly the meaning that is most often attributed to it. As A. Wadud notes, “daraba does not always mean force or cruelty. For example, this verb is used in the Quran in the phrase “daraba Allah masalyan” (“Allah has given or established examples”). It is also used in the meaning of “to go” or “to embark” on a journey.”21 We are talking about the phrase () from Sura 66 “Prohibition”: “Allah gives as an example for the disbelievers the wife of Nuh and the wife of Lut.” (Quran, 66:10) In addition, Men justify their cruelty and violence by also referring to the very beginning of the sura, which says that God gave men an advantage (faddala) over women. The term "faddala"
often paired with the term "daraja", which is often translated as "degree". Thus, we are talking about the degree of superiority of men over women, which often serves as the basis for statements about women's Sukdeo R. Secrets behind the burqa. Islam, women and the West. St. Petersburg: VARNAVA, 2005. P. 43.
Arabic-Russian dictionary. T.1. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1970. P. 578.
Wadud A. Qur’an and woman: rereading the Sacred Text from a woman’s perspective. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. P. 76.
inferiority and complete dependence of women on men. It can be assumed that this verse refers to the economic dominance of men, which does not mean their superiority in all other areas. In particular, the term "faddala" was used to denote the privileged position of the ruler, but precisely in a property context: "It is obvious that the possession of surplus property (fadl) and its use in this way was the most important characteristic of persons occupying a high social position"22.
The concepts of “faddalah” and “darajah” are used in various contexts and, as a rule, imply division according to the degree of some properties or characteristics: property, degree of relationship with the prophet, level of virtue, etc. The relationship between a man and a woman does not remain aside. Thus, in refraction on verse 4:34, it turns out that “according to the Koran, social inequality of husband and wife, man and woman is due to inequality of property (see also: 4:32).
Here we can also note the use in the Koran of the terms ba'l (2:228) and sayyid (12:25) - “lord” - in the meaning of “husband.”23 L. Silvers, for example, suggests focusing on the personal example of Muhammad, who is a model of moral behavior for all believers. Despite the claim that the Prophet never beat his women, there is one significant exception that led to this verse being revealed. “Muslim says that Muhammad hit Aisha in the chest after he noticed that she was watching him when he went to see his other wife. If we consider the sources available to us, it becomes clear that Muhammad struck Aisha before verse 4:34 was revealed.”24 When the outburst of anger passed, Muhammad realized what he had done and regretted it. The Prophet was in Rezvan E.A. The Koran and its world. St. Petersburg: Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2001. P. 149.
–  –  –
Silvers L. “In the Book we have left out nothing”: the Ethical problem of the existence of verse 4:34 in the Quran // Comparative Islamic Studies, 2008. Vol. 2. No. 2. R. 176.
confusion and even at first did not want to make this verse public, because from my own experience I knew that such a solution to the problem would not be constructive and would bring nothing but pain and disappointment to both the husband and wife. The solution to this problem can be the interpretation of Ibn Arabi, which is given by L. Silvers: “we must not deny the existence of prescriptions or any Divine intention, but we can reduce their practical application to a prohibition in the legal system and to our ethical disagreements about the many-sided possibilities of the Book , the world and ourselves"25.
A woman who is responsible for family relationships should herself feel warmth and comfort in her own home, being under the tutelage and care of her husband, and not in fear of him. As stated in Sahih
Muslim: “And treat women well, because a woman is created from a rib. Its upper part is the most curvature, and if you [try to] straighten [the rib], you will break it, and if you leave it [alone], it will remain crooked. [Remember this and always] treat women well.”26 Moreover, “the spiritual duties of a husband mean a fair and lenient attitude towards his wife, creating conditions for her to be diligent in worshiping Allah and deepen her knowledge in the field of religious and secular sciences”27. Both men and women have certain responsibilities towards God, their family and the ummah as a whole.
“Everyone, within the framework of the role assigned to him by the Almighty, people must work in accordance with their inclinations and abilities and make their feasible contribution to the formation of the individual, family and society.
Men should do what they are better suited for than women and what suits their masculine nature. The same applies to Silvers L. “In the Book we have left out nothing”: the Ethical problem of the existence of verse 4:34 in the Quran // Comparative Islamic Studies, 2008. Vol. 2. No. 2. R. 177.
Muslim. Sahih. A summary compiled by Imam al-Munziri. M.: Umma, 2011. P. 338.
Right there. P. 241.
woman. This ensures mutual assistance and cooperation between representatives of both sexes, necessary to achieve the goals set for them.”28 The woman has the task of preserving and increasing the members of the ummah, and therefore the status of the mother is especially great in Muslim society.
There is a hadith narrated by Abu Hurayrah who said:
“One day a man came to the Messenger of Allah and asked: “O Messenger of Allah, which of the people most deserves my good treatment?” He said, “Your mother.” He asked: “And who then?” He said, “Your mother.” He asked: “And who then?” He said, “Then your father.” This hadith was narrated by Ahmad, Bukhari and Muslim.”29 Thus, “The Noble Quran encourages all believers to be grateful and respectful children to their parents, and reminds them of the superiority of a mother who bears and feeds children over a father who does neither. no other"30. The Koran says:
You will return to Me." (Quran, 31:14).
Despite the fact that the man is the head of the family and responsible for the religious education of his household, the woman represents the spiritual center of the family and is responsible for the atmosphere of coziness and psychological comfort. By raising children and forming basic moral and cultural values in them, a woman makes an invaluable contribution to the development of Muslim society, in connection with which there is a well-known expression: “if you teach a man, you teach one person, if you teach a woman, you teach a nation.” The main focus of the life of a Muslim woman and her personality in the light of the Koran and Sunnah / Comp., trans. from Arabic, revised, approx. E.
Sorokoumova. M.: Umma, 2011. P. 97.
E. Kuliev. Notes // Koran. M.: Umma, 2009. P. 661.
Muslim woman and her personality in the light of the Koran and Sunnah / Comp., trans. from Arabic, revised, approx. E.
Sorokoumova. M.: Umma, 2011. P. 144.
Women, of course, are family, but this does not mean that there is a ban on women's participation in social and cultural spheres of life. “In Muslim society, special attention is paid to the education of women, on which the moral and intellectual health of future generations largely depends. It is no coincidence that the mother of the faithful, Aisha, reached such heights in theology, literature and other sciences that even outstanding companions turned to her for advice.”31 Women are not isolated from public life, but in order to take part in it, they must comply with a number of requirements, including The main ones can be identified: compliance with moral Muslim norms and focusing, first of all, on family responsibilities.
“Women in Muslim societies easily rose to the level of scientists, preachers, and public figures. They headed the Divan of Complaints and occupied other government posts.”32 In terms of combining family responsibilities and social activities, the examples of the first Muslim women are indicative.
If Muhammad is an example of an ideal Muslim man, then the image of an ideal woman is embodied in the collective type of “righteous Muslim women” and those women who are revered in Islam on an equal basis with them. From this gallery of accomplished women, four stand out in particular: Asia, the wife of Pharaoh; Maryam, mother of Isa; Khadija, Muhammad's first wife, and Fatima, one of his favorite daughters. These women were not saints in the Christian sense - they lived quite ordinary lives, but it was this very life that became an example and role model.33 Islamic Studies / 2nd edition, Spanish. General ed. Murtazin M.F. M.: publishing house of the Moscow Islamic University, 2008. P. 234.
See al-Suhaybani A.A. Pictures from the life of the Prophet's companions. M.: Mir, 2009.
The images of the first Muslim women almost immediately began to become mythologized. The high status of the Prophet's wives and his closest companions gave rise to unprecedented interest in these women: their every step, word, even thoughts were subjected to careful discussion and analysis.
In different historical periods, emphasis was placed either on the heroism and dedication of wives and the first Muslim women in general, or such typical feminine qualities as love, compassion, mercy, etc. came to the fore. But no matter what image of the first Muslim women prevailed in a particular period of time, it is impossible not to pay attention to the fact that their life was not isolated from society.
Researchers of the “women’s” issue in Islam often limit themselves to describing a woman’s household and family responsibilities, without mentioning her socio-political role. At the same time, I would like to emphasize that from the first centuries of Islam to the present day, Muslim women have not been isolated from public life. Moreover, we can find quite an impressive list of Muslim poetesses, experts in fiqh, women engaged in scientific activities and who have succeeded in various fields of culture, art and politics. An example is the collection of hadith scholar al-Hafiz al-Munziri (d. 656/1258) “Mu'jam shuyukh al-Munziri”, in which he lists women teachers; or the “collection of teachers” by Imam Shams ad-Din Muhammad al-Dhahabi (d. 748/1348)34.
Thanks to the book of U. Bahrie, we can talk about at least twenty female rulers and thirteen regents who ruled in Muslim countries. It should be noted that, as the author himself notes, not a single woman was included in the book, “until it was established that she had such signs of sovereign power as minting her own coin or mentioning her name in the Friday prayer of Useinova S.R. Women scientists in medieval Islam // Asiatica: Works on the philosophy and culture of the East. Issue 9. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg University, 2015. P. 65.
(khutba) or until written sources revealed information about her elevation to the position of monarch.”35 The book tells about outstanding rulers of the Muslim world, such as the Delhi Sultana Razin (1235-1240), the Egyptian Sultana-founder of the Mamluk-Bahri dynasty Shajarat ad -Durr (1250) and many others.36 This study concerns only official female rulers, not to mention the secret influence of women on the political affairs of their spouses and lovers. And here, first of all, we mean harem intrigues, about which quite a few works have been written, and among which the book by Sh. Kaziev37 should be highlighted.
Thus, new studies of the place and role of women in Islamic society add new facets to the image of a Muslim woman.
Despite this, unfortunately, Muslim women continue to be subject to segregation, usually based on certain ethnic moral and social norms, which can be reduced to local adats - traditions and practical guidelines for life.
As noted by B.K. Larson, “The traditional role of the Arab woman is essentially one of service and submission to man, with varying variations depending on her class, lifestyle, and, more recently, the degree of her Europeanization. In general terms: nomadic women were freer than peasant women; Lower-class women who worked outside the home were more independent than middle-class women; Westernized women from high society have more freedom than women from other classes of society.”38
Bahrie U. Women rulers in Muslim states. M.: Nauka, 1982. P. 17.
See Bahrie U. Women rulers in Muslim states. M.: Nauka, 1982.
See Kaziev Sh.M. Daily life of an oriental harem. M.: Young Guard, 2006.
Larson B.K. The status of women in a Tunisian Village: limits to autonomy, influence, and power // Signs.1984. Vol. 9, No. 3. P. 420.
Based on the status of women, repeatedly emphasized in the Qur'an, and also taking into account her rights, such as the right to private property, inheritance, sexual and moral satisfaction, etc., one cannot help but notice that all her rights are somehow in depending on the man. In this regard, the question that D. Vaines asked in her essay becomes relevant: why do women, with their potential to change the situation, continue to live in subordination to men?39 This question is posed a little incorrectly, because it is asked in the context of European ideas about “rights and freedoms,” while Muslim society adheres to other concepts and philosophies. Moreover, Sharia as the basis of Muslim society is perceived not only as a legal regulation, but also, more importantly, as the cement that prevents such a motley and multinational phenomenon as the ummah from falling apart. Currently, there is a tendency to “Europeanize” civil and commercial relations, while Sharia remains the basis of the family code and personal self-determination.
Of course, the presented interpretation of the position of women in Islam seems too optimistic and does not coincide with the real state of affairs in the Muslim world. This is often because the Qur'anic narrative and the Prophet's Sunnah provide room for interpretation. If we consider that in Islam there is no single centralized governing body, as, for example, in Christianity, it turns out that Muslim precepts are interpreted differently, depending on the traditions and cultural characteristics of a given region or group of people.
In addition, the variability of the text allows for the presence of arguments confirming opposing points of view (discussed above Waines D. Through a veil darkly: the study of women in Muslim societies. A review article // Comparative studies in society and history, 1982. Vol. 23, No. 4. P. 645.
The verses concerning the status of women can be viewed in a completely different light). Moreover, in some Muslim countries (or in Muslim families, regardless of region of residence), the true situation of women is actually extremely difficult, which is usually caused by a general low standard of living, a virtual lack of literacy and other difficult social and political conditions. However, even in countries with developed economies and a good standard of living (for example, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, etc.), women are an order of magnitude lower than men and are significantly limited in their rights; possible reasons for this phenomenon were listed above.
Despite the certain “secondary” nature of women in Muslim society, her role in it is difficult to overestimate and not notice. A woman, according to Muslim doctrine, was created as a man’s assistant, his soul mate and inseparable from him. The union of a man and a woman forms the basis of the ummah. However, the rights and socio-religious aspects of a woman’s life are in one way or another dependent on a man: father, husband, son, etc. One gets the feeling that a woman is not able to live independently, without the constant tutelage of male society. It cannot be said unequivocally that this observation will be correct; rather, such guardianship is apparently caused by concern for the woman, because she is generally considered weaker and emotionally unstable compared to a man. This “dependent” status of a woman is also influenced by her physiological characteristics. The legal equality of men and women, often mentioned by Muslim scholars, cannot be interpreted in the European sense, but rather can be understood as equality of opportunity and justice for every member of the ummah, whether male or female.
At the same time, the images of the first Muslim women, who are role models for Muslim women, show that a woman can be not only the mother of a family and a faithful wife, but also a warrior, scientist, transmitter of hadiths, etc. In this case, even more absurd are the bans on female education, professional development, politics, etc., which exist in some Muslim societies, but which have nothing to do with Islam itself and represent local moral and religious traditions. However, despite the reactionary policies of some Muslim countries, women are rapidly expanding their ideological boundaries, entering the until recently predominantly male spheres of society, forming their own organizations, forming social movements and regaining the rights and responsibilities that they had the right to receive, but for a long time they did not dare to do this.
Chapter II. The ethical side of the concept of love in Sufism
1. Sufism: brief description and basic concepts The most probable origin of the term “Sufism” is from the word “suf”, i.e. “wool”, “since clothing made of wool, being warm and, most importantly, wearable, has long been an attribute of an ascetic and hermit lifestyle.”40 A similar opinion is shared by M.T.
Stepanyants, who writes that “the basis for this explanation is found in the earliest surviving Arab treatise on Sufism, the author of which, Abu Nasr al-Sarraj, argued that “woolen clothing was customary for the prophets, saints, and chosen ones.”41 In addition, “The Arabic verb tasawwafa, which comes from this word, means “to put on a woolen robe.” Hence the Arabic verbal verb tasawwuf - “the custom/habit of wearing a woolen robe””42. Some researchers believe that the name comes from the word “saf”, i.e. “purity”, this is mentioned in the book “Koranic Sufism” by M. Wallidin. There is also another version of the origin of the term: from the word “suffa”, i.e. “the bench” because “they were called Sufis because their qualities resembled the qualities of the people of the Bench (ashab al-suffa) who lived during the time of the Prophet. They left the world below, left their homes and left their devotees.”43 Perhaps the first Sufis, not possessing any property, spent the night on benches in mosques, for which they received such a name. “There is also an opinion that the name of Sufis is based on the word saff (row), since they are in the first ranks of Muslims, in the first ranks of those who serve Allah”44.
The concept of “Sufism” or tasawwuf is connected with the concept of irfan.
“Terminologically, both words, irfan and tasawwuf, apply to all Khismatulin A.A. Sufism. St. Petersburg: ABC - classics, St. Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2008. P. 15.
Stepanyants M.T. Islamic mysticism. M.: Kanon+, 2009. P. 4.
Knysh A.D. Muslim mysticism. M.-SPb: Dilya, 2004. P. 10.
Validdin M. Quranic Sufism. M.-SPb: DILYA, 2004. P. 9.
Muhammad Yu. Encyclopedia of Sufism. M.: Ansar, 2005. P. 13.
three parts of mysticism (social, practical and theoretical. In historical books the word tasawwuf is usually used"45.
Despite all the diversity of mystical experience that characterizes Sufism, it should be noted that it exists primarily within the framework of Muslim thought. All non-Islamic elements are explained by the active interaction of cultures in the countries of the Middle East, “where even before the appearance of the Prophet Muhammad, the ideas of Christianity, Judaism, Neoplatonism, etc. were known.”46 As noted by A.M. Schimmel, “Muhammad is the first link in the spiritual chain of Sufism. His ascension through the heavens into the Divine presence, hinted at in the first lines of Sura 17, became the prototype of the spiritual ascent of the mystic to personal intimacy with God."47 In Sufi writings, Muhammad is portrayed as a true lover and the perfect embodiment of the mystical love of God. This was facilitated by the idealization of the image of Muhammad, starting from the first centuries of Islam. “Contrary to the Koranic image of Muhammad as an ordinary man (with his weaknesses and illnesses, fallible), sent to people with a prophetic mission, the Sufi tradition endowed him with the ability to perform “miracles,” supernatural knowledge, wisdom, etc., which logically led to the creation the image of the “perfect man” (an-insal al-kamil, see, for example, the teachings of the intellectual Ibn al-Arabi, died in 1240).48 Muhammad combined moral purity and a passionate desire to know God and get closer to Him.
Muhammad the Prophet, as well as Muhammad the man, enjoys constant authority among Muslims. The Quran repeatedly mentions the special status of Muhammad and his closeness to God: “Whoever obeys the Messenger obeys Allah” (Quran, 4:80). Muhammad Birinjkar R. Introduction to Islamic Sciences: Kalam, Falsafa, Irfan. M.: Sadra, 2014. P. 202.
Stepanyants M.T. Islamic mysticism. M.: Kanon+, 2009. P. 5.
Schimmel. A. The world of Islamic mysticism. M.: Sadra, 2012. P.40.
Prozorov S.M. Prophet Muhammad in the Sufi tradition as the perfect embodiment of Mystical love for God // Written monuments of the East, 2009. No. 2. P. 123.
was sent as “mercy to the worlds”, i.e. to all humanity, which is why he closes the chain of prophecies, becoming the last messenger of God.
The situation changed in the 8th century, when the personality of Muhammad became one of the main figures in mystical poetry. For example, the famous mystic Hallaj put forward the idea of the “light of Muhammad” as a certain substance whose light precedes everything and is part of the Divine light. “In Hallaj’s poetry, the Prophet is glorified both as the cause and as the goal of creation... The world was created for the sake of eternal love, which manifested itself in the Prophet Muhammad”49. Love for Muhammad leads the believer to Divine love. Dissolving in this love, a person loses himself (fana), self-destructing in a spiritual mentor, “who acts as the deputy of the Prophet; then fana fi‘r-rasul, “(self) destruction in the Prophet”; and only then can he hope to achieve (if this happens at all) fana fi Allah, “(self-)annihilation in Allah.”50
It is assumed that the prototypes of Sufis were the first Muslims - ascetics. As M.T. notes Stepanyants, “according to scientists, the first to receive the nickname al-Sufi were ascetics from Kufa - Abu Hashim (died in 767) and Jabir Ibn Khayyam (died in 867).”51 It is known that ascetic tendencies appeared in times of the Prophet. Numerous reports have reached us that Muhammad led a very modest lifestyle and taught his followers to be content with little. As Abd al-Husayn Zarrinkub states, “the asceticism and abstinence that led Muslims to Sufism were to a certain extent predetermined by the Koran and the biography of the Prophet,”52 which at the same time prohibited excessive abstinence and complete withdrawal from the world.
Schimmel. A. The world of Islamic mysticism. M.: Sadra, 2012. P. 219.
–  –  –
Stepanyants M.T. Islamic mysticism. M.: Kanon+, 2009. P. 6.
Zarrinkub A. Kh. The value of the Sufi heritage. St. Petersburg: Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2012. P. 43.
Muhammad's moderation in all areas of life is confirmed by many hadiths in which the Prophet praises abstinence and even poverty, saying that his poverty is his pride. We should also not forget that Muhammad was not only a prophet, but also a family man, leading a completely ordinary life as a husband and father. Given this circumstance, the fact that later mystics renounced the world and considered it inherently sinful is somewhat puzzling. The explanation may be the split in public consciousness and the “ferment” of minds that arose during the period of active expansion of the young Islamic state after the death of the Prophet. Abstinence was replaced by luxury and an idle life, which confused the minds of ordinary people and led to a number of protests. Such protest phenomena became one of the foundations of the emerging Sufism. This idea is confirmed by I.P. Petrushevsky, noting that the basis of early Sufism “was asceticism - zukhd and ascetic rejection of the world, “flight from the world” (Ar. al-firar min ad-dunya), and at the same time condemnation of wealth, luxurious and idle life of the ruling elite of the caliphate"53. This fusion of ambiguous phenomena, coupled with the expansion of the territory of the caliphate, the general trend of declining morality and the appearance of many borrowed elements from other cultures, caused a mystical and ascetic “mood” in society.
As al-Hujwiri (d. 1072 or 1077) notes, “In the time of the Prophet, among the refugees (muhajirin) were the poor (fuqara), who spent all their time in his mosque, devoting themselves to the worship of God.
Having complete trust (tawakkul) in God, they firmly believed that He would send them food.”54 Poverty protects a person from sinful acts and turns his gaze to Divine grace. ““A beggar is not Petrushevsky I.P. Islam in Iran in the 7th – 15th centuries: Course of lectures / Ed. IN AND. Belyaeva. SPb: S.Peterb. Univ., 2007. P. 334.
Al-Hujwiri. Revealing what is hidden behind the veil. The oldest Persian treatise on Sufism. (Kashf al-mahjub li arbab al-qulub). M.: Unity, 2004. P. 20.
content with nothing but God,” for he desires nothing else.”55 Moreover, “the Sufi owns nothing, and nothing owns him.”56 The dervish must avoid the temptations of the earthly world and all its delights, being content only with meager food and the necessary things. As Saadi writes: “A beautiful woman with a clean face // Let there be no rouge, no rubbing, no turquoise ring // A pious dervish with high thoughts // Let there be no free bread and alms.”57 Early Muslim ascetics gave special the importance of moral purity and fear of God. “These ascetics, who can be considered as the forerunners of the Sufi movement, sought to achieve inner intimacy with God through vows (especially abstinence from food and sexual relations), humility, the performance of additional ascetic rituals, long night vigils, and pious reflection on the meaning of the Koranic text , as well as complete mental and spiritual concentration on God."58. Fearing not to fulfill all Divine commands and realizing their insignificance before the Absolute, ascetics hoped only for the boundless love and mercy of God.
The mystical-ascetic period of Islam preceding Sufism itself laid the foundations of Sufi teaching, which can be expressed in the following ideas: obedience to the Divine Will;
the desire to unite with the Beloved; return to the state of “original purity” (fitra); avoiding the “traps” (obstacles) of the earthly world. “Thus, the task of the mystic became self-analysis and strict adherence to self-imposed ascetic restrictions in the hope of using them to suppress his own “I”, and Al-Hujwiri. Revealing what is hidden behind the veil. The oldest Persian treatise on Sufism. (Kashf al-mahjub li arbab al-qulub). M.: Unity, 2004. P. 26.
Right there. P. 37.
Saadi. Gulistan. M.: Publishing House of Eastern Literature, 1959. P. 117.
Knysh A.D. Muslim mysticism. M.-SPb: DILYA, 2004. P. 13.
that means all the destructive passions emanating from him. As long as one’s own “I” exists, true “Islam”, i.e. true surrender of oneself to the Divine will is impossible.”59 Briefly the essence of Sufism (Ar.
tasawwuf) can be expressed in the following form: “Harf “ta” - tawba (repentance), “garden” - safa (purity), “vav” - vilayat (closer to Allah), “fa” - fana (dissolution in Allah) "60 Zuhd (asceticism, renunciation of everything earthly) as a means of moral purification and improvement of a person, presupposes the presence of a number of self-restraints that a person imposes on himself, thus trying to go beyond the limits of worldly life and get closer to God. As noted by I.R. Nasyrov, “thus it was argued that a person can, under certain conditions, while remaining within the empirical world, that is, without changing his ontological nature, receive the experience of the transcendent in the form of “unshakable confidence” (yakn) or direct vision of the super-empirical world “as it is”” .61 This stage, having gone through many trials and spending many sleepless nights in prayer, was reached by a select few: “the ascetics lived in a state of ascetic anxiety and sadness out of fear of the Lord and fear of severe retribution on the Day of Judgment.”62 Gradually expanding the boundaries of mystical experience and along the way accumulating theoretical material, by the end of the 11th century. The Sufi tradition was faced with the need to organize and explain to subsequent generations of mystics the entire body of its knowledge and research. By this time, the main Sufi conceptual apparatus had developed, and the concept of the “path” (“tarika”) - the way of the mystic’s ascent to the Absolute - took shape. The term “tariqa” means a path, a branch from the broad road of Sharia, which symbolizes the beginning of the path of every Sufi.
Knysh A.D. Muslim mysticism. M.-SPb: DILYA, 2004. P. 15.
Muhammad Yu. Encyclopedia of Sufism. M.: Ansar, 2005. P. 14.
Nasyrov I. R. Foundations of Islamic mysticism. Genesis and evolution // Languages of Slavic cultures.
M.: 2009. P. 75.
Zarrinkub A.Kh. The value of Sufi heritage. St. Petersburg: Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2012. P. 43.
It is impossible to enter the Path without knowing and observing the classical Islamic canons, formalized in Sharia. The wanderer, called a salik, leaves this starting point and moves on - this is where the Path itself begins, because Thus, in a strict sense, tariqa represents the second stage of advancement to the Absolute. Here “the mystic traveler acquires the necessary inner peace and confidence, helping him to overcome the most difficult trials that fate sends him.”63 The third and final destination of the mystic is haqiqa (Truth or true reality) - the traveler seems to see God, feels His presence every second , merging with Him (although the last statement was precisely the subject of lively debate between representatives of various Sufi movements and “schools”).
One of these obstacles is the world surrounding the Sufi. World
A dangerous “trap” on the path to God, therefore, “all mankind is separated by a “veil” from the subtlety of spiritual truth, with the exception of God’s saints and His chosen friends...”64 Man lives in the world of created things, turning away from God, throwing “veils” over Him ", preventing you from seeing Beauty and Truth. The path (or spiritual practice) is needed in order to cleanse the world of “veils” that impede Divine Knowledge.
Although Divine knowledge is considered the ultimate goal of all Sufis, the ways to achieve this goal are different. Each traveler must pass through several “stages” or “stations” along this path, but their number could fluctuate greatly depending on the Sufi “direction”.
As a rule, the following “parking lots” are distinguished:
repentance (tawbat), conversion to the path of Truth (inabat), detachment from the world (zuhd) and complete trust in God (tawakkul). “Stopping (makam) means “staying” or “being” of a given person on the way to Knysh A.D. Muslim mysticism. M.-SPb: DILYA, 2004. P. 350.
Al-Hujwiri. Revealing what is hidden behind the veil for those versed in the secrets of hearts (Kashf al-mahjub li arbab al-qulub). M.: Unity, 2004. P. 4.
God and his fulfillment of obligations corresponding to a given “station” until he has mastered its perfection as fully as humanly possible.”65 The exact number of stations is difficult to determine: it varies depending on the Sufi and his affiliation with one or another. to a different “current”.
“The essential condition of a station is that you cannot reach the next station until you have fulfilled all the obligations at that station.”66 Abu Nasr al-Sarraj al-Tusi (d. 988) describes the concept of “parking” as follows: “The Shaykh said - may Allah be merciful to him: “If they ask about the meaning of the word “parking,” they answer: “This is the standing (makam) of a slave before Allah, in accordance with the service of Allah (ibadat), asceticism (mujahadat), pious exercises (riyadat) and turning to Allah (inqita ila-llah), which are determined for him. The Almighty said: “This is for those / / who is afraid of standing before Me and My threat" (Quran 14:14/17)."67 "Standing" at first glance is quite easy to identify with the "state" (hal), but the difference is fundamental. ""State" (hal) - this is what descends into a person’s heart from God."68 A person cannot “manage” a “state” at his own will. ““States” are a Divine gift, while “states” are achieved through human effort”69.
The Rules of Worship by Shakiq al-Balkhi (d. 810) speaks of four main stages (stations) on the path to God: asceticism, fear, aspiration and love. Al-Hujwiri was one of the first to create such a list. Revealing what is hidden behind the veil for those versed in the secrets of hearts (Kashf al-mahjub li arbab al-qulub). M.: Unity, 2004. P. 180.
Al-Qushayri Abu l-Qasim. Epistle on Susm. Al-Risala al-qushayriyya ‘ilm al-tasawwuf. London: Garnet Publishing, 2007. P. 77.
At-Tusi, Abu Nasr al-Sarraj. Kitab al-luma fi-t-tasavwuf (“The most brilliant in Sufism”) // Reader on Islam / Compiled and edited. ed. CM. Prozorov. M.: Nauka, 1994. P. 141.
Al-Hujwiri. Revealing what is hidden behind the veil for those versed in the secrets of hearts (Kashf al-mahjub li arbab al-qulub). M.: Unity, 2004. P. 180.
Al-Qushayri Abu l-Qasim. Epistle on Susm. Al-Risala al-qushayriyya ‘ilm al-tasawwuf. London: Garnet Publishing, 2007. P. 78.
was Dhu-n-Nun Misri (d. 860). It is assumed that this list included slightly more sites, from eight to nineteen.
Al-Qushayri (d. 1074) listed about fifty sites in his treatise, al-Ansari (d. 1089) gives more than a hundred stages of spiritual quest, and Ruzbihan Bakli (d. 1209) writes about thousand and one stops.70 To achieve his main goal, the traveler must go through a difficult, thorny path, observing certain conditions. On such a journey it is impossible to do without an experienced mentor and “guide”, who is the sheikh. “In Sufi mysticism, the sheikh is a spiritual guide. Having traveled along the mystical path (tarika), he knows all its pitfalls and dangers, which is important for a beginning student or murid, who must completely surrender himself into the hands of the teacher. Thus, he becomes the spiritual father of his student and his “educator.”71 Therefore, the first step on the path of knowledge acquisition will be the acquisition of a mentor. The second step is considered to be the vow of complete submission of the student to the teacher: “You must follow the fir blindly and in real life obey him as the Prophet Muhammad. The slightest word of the pir is an absolute law for his student.”72 Such unconditional submission was perceived as the murid’s refusal of his own “I”, the gradual dissolution of his “I” into the “I” of the mentor.
The relationship between the student and the teacher forms the basis of learning, ensuring the principle of silsil, i.e. transmission of spiritual knowledge.
There are several basic methods of transmitting knowledge: “the teacher can be the spirit of the deceased (Uwaisi tradition); the spirit of a living sheikh; the spirit of a living sheikh - a father, genetic or spiritual (spiritual adoption).”73 Having found a teacher, the murid began to move along the stations of the Path, using the methods suggested by the mentor. Methods, in Ernst K. Sufism: Mystical Islam. M.: Eksmo, 2012. pp. 173-178.
Geoffroy E. Shaykh // Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. IX. Leiden: Brill, 1997. R. 397.
Subhan J. A. Sufism, its saints and shrines. M.-SPb: DILYA, 2005. P. 64.
Khismatullin A.A. Sufism. St. Petersburg: ABC - classics, St. Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2008. P. 38.
Depending on the preferences of the murshid, they could differ, but their essence boiled down to a few of the most common: salat, tilawat (i.e.
the practice of reciting the Qur'an aloud), mubarak (observation, analysis of intentions), mujahadah (effort or spiritual struggle), and malamatiya or the method of “the blameworthy.”74 A person’s personality is often denoted by the concept of nafs. “When Sufis pronounce the word nafs, they do not mean existence, nor the physical body. Instead, they refer to negative character traits, as well as blameworthy morals and actions.”75 Thus, in Sufism, the concept of “nafs” has a negative connotation, and is often translated as “base soul,” which implies human vices and passions. “In early Arabic literature, nafs denoted the ego or personality of a person, while ruh denoted breath and wind. With the advent of the Koran, nafs also came to mean the soul, and ruh - special messages from angels or a special divine category.
It is only in post-Quranic texts that nafs and ruh are combined together and can denote both the human spirit and angels and jinn... The early Sufis accepted the materialistic character of ruh. Both al-Qushayri (al-Risala, with comments by Zakariya al-Ansari and notes by al-Arusi, Bulak, 1290) and al-Hujwiri (Kashf almahjub, comp. Nicholson, London, 1911) called rukh a substance of the highest category (ayn) or body (jism), placed in a sensually tangible body like life-giving moisture in a green forest. Nafs (al-Risala, al-Kashf) is a repository of reprehensible characteristics.
All this is a person.”76 The Sufi path of knowledge can be considered as getting rid of one’s own “I” or nafs, which leads the Sufi to his cherished goal - Khismatullin A.A. Sufism. St. Petersburg: ABC - classics, St. Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2008. pp. 88-98.
Al-Qushayri Abu l-Qasim. Epistle on Susm. Al-Risala al-qushayriyya ‘ilm al-tasawwuf. London: Garnet Publishing, 2007. P. 109.
Calverley E.E. Nafs // Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. VII. Leiden: Brill, 1993. P. 880-882.
complete dissolution in God (fana) and further existence in Him (baka). There are different understandings of these terms: some Sufis believe that baka is the final stage of the Path, others are sure that this is just the beginning.
With the development and complication of the conceptual basis of Sufism, the following definitions were adopted: “According to the first, fana means the liberation and “emptying” of the mystic’s consciousness from all thoughts, including even thoughts about the mystical path and self-improvement...According to the second definition, fana represents the “falling away” of imperfect qualities of the sinful human soul and their subsequent replacement by the perfect attributes of the Divine.”77 Baka represents a prolonged stay in God. According to A.D. Knysh, “this state presupposes the simultaneous awareness of the plurality of the world and the original unity of all things.”78 Al-Hujwiri’s treatise provides an explanation from the founder of this approach, Abu Said Kharraz (d. 899): “Abolition is the abolition of human self-awareness (' ubudiyyat), and existence is existence in the contemplation of Divinity (ilahiyat).79 In other words, “Sufism means a station where human qualities gradually disappear.”80 Thus, the first stage of fana is to eradicate one’s egoistic qualities, replacing them with divine ones attributes.
We can say that this is the ethical stage. The second stage of fana occurs when “the soul sees itself surrounded by the eternal light of God.”81 The third stage (baka) involves complete immersion in wujud (unity of being). At this stage, the mystic becomes “found” by God, but at the same time, the mystic’s personality completely loses its uniqueness, dissolving in the Divine presence. Kushayri views these Knysh A.D. somewhat differently. Muslim mysticism. M.-SPb: DILYA, 2004. P. 360.
–  –  –
Al-Hujwiri. Revealing what is hidden behind the veil for those versed in the secrets of hearts (Kashf al-mahjub li arbab al-qulub). M.: Unity, 2004. P. 244.
Al-Qushayri Abu l-Qasim. Epistle on Susm. Al-Risala al-qushayriyya ‘ilm al-tasawwuf. London: Garnet Publishing, 2007. P. 291.
Schimmel A. The world of Islamic mysticism. M.: Sadra, 2012. P. 150.
stages: “The first destruction consists of replacing one’s self and one’s qualities with the attributes of God. Then comes the replacement of the attributes of God with the contemplation of God. Then comes the destruction of the process of destruction itself, since a person becomes involved in the existence of God Himself.”82 The theoretical and practical developments of the Sufis gradually developed into teachings, and numerous students who gathered around outstanding personalities formed brotherhoods (tarikat, i.e. schools of mysticism). “Usually this happened when a group or circle united around a certain mentor on a new path and turned into a school, the purpose of which was to propagate his name, methods of teaching, rules of mystical exercises and lifestyle introduced by him.”83 As a rule, “this could be like small monasteries (zawiya), in which the teacher and his students usually lived, and large inns for wandering Sufis (ribat), and giant Sufi “monasteries” (khanaka), in which up to several hundred Sufis could live.”84 Thus , the emergence and further development of Sufi brotherhoods contributed to the development of ethical standards, as well as rules of spiritual succession and many rituals. At the same time, the formation of spiritual communities contributed to the socialization of Sufism and the attraction of new members of the brotherhoods. The diversity of spiritual centers and a unique vision of the path of knowledge led to the development of its own regulatory framework in each of the Sufi brotherhoods. In addition, Sufi tariqas collected the best features of the ascetic practice of the first Sufis and supplemented them with new traditions, one way or another adapted to the Muslim spiritual and social paradigm.
Al-Qushayri Abu l-Qasim. Epistle on Susm. Al-Risala al-qushayriyya ‘ilm al-tasawwuf. London: Garnet Publishing, 2007. P. 91.
Trimingham J. Sufi orders in Islam. M.: Sofia, 2002. P. 15.
Knysh A.D. Muslim mysticism Muslim mysticism. M.-SPb: DILYA, 2004. P. 200
2. Moral perfection as the main component of Sufism
2.1. Basic provisions of Muslim ethics The Koran expresses such basic ethical concepts as free will and predestination, good and evil, understanding of life and death, responsibility for one’s own actions, etc. “Allah calls to the abode of peace [eternal] and guides those whom He will to the straight path. Those who have done good deeds will be rewarded generously and even with more.
There will not be a shadow [of sorrow] or humiliation on their faces. They are the abodes of paradise, where they will remain forever. And those who committed evil will be rewarded with the same amount of evil, and humiliation will befall them. There will be no protector for them from the [wrath] of Allah, and their faces will be covered as if with shreds of hopeless night. They are the inhabitants of the fire of hell, and will remain there forever.” (Quran, 10:25-27). The ethical instructions of the Koran are of a pronounced imperative nature: “Do not spread wickedness on earth after righteousness has begun to be established on it. Turn to Him in fear and trust. Indeed, the mercy of Allah will not escape those who do good.” (Quran, 7:56). Hadith also call people to fear God, improve virtue and strengthen the moral foundations of the ummah.
A person in Muslim culture is God’s deputy on earth, therefore he has the right to enjoy all its benefits without causing harm to himself or the world around him. By observing all divine injunctions, a person can gain the pleasure of God and draw closer to Him. By avoiding vices and increasing one's virtues, a person follows the right path, which can be expressed in the Qur'anic term taqwa. Taqwa means fear of God, piety, i.e. the realization that God sees all a person’s thoughts and deeds, which leads to a deeper awareness of one’s own life. Piety becomes the main virtue, incorporating all the others. “O sons of Adam!
We gave you clothes to cover your shameful parts, and clothes to adorn you. However, the robe of piety is better. This is one of the signs of God, perhaps it will serve as an instruction [for people].” (Quran, 7:26). Thus, piety can be considered on two levels. On the one hand, this is the personal moral improvement of each person. “Since God is the only source of good, a person cannot achieve happiness for himself without connection with God.
Moreover, he is incapable of understanding what true good and true evil are, and therefore needs instruction and guidance. “Say: I am not able to dispose of anything useful or harmful for myself if God does not want it.
If I were well aware of the secret, I would be enriched with every good, and no evil would touch me: I am only an accuser and evangelist for people who believe."85 On the other hand, taqwa is seen as a means of uniting the ummah in the face of the formidable and punishing unseemly acts by God, which also helps to increase the level of moral consciousness of its members.
“Verily, those who believe [in the One God] and do good deeds are the best of creatures” (Quran, 98:7). And also “This is how Allah explains His verses to you - perhaps you will [still] step on the straight path, and then let a community of you be formed that will call to good, encourage to good and turn away from evil” (Quran, 3 :103-104).
Fearing the omnipotence of God and fearing being unworthy of His mercy and forgiveness, people created a kind of brotherhood (which, in fact, was the original ummah) in order to receive support and guidance from its members. “Only absolute submission, submission (Islam) to the will of God can save a person from the punishment of the Last Judgment, and, therefore, the most necessary for people are the relationships that ensure the fulfillment of his will, that is, connections by faith. Therefore, the only thing that guaranteed success in the earthly world was the protection of Allah, earned through the unquestioning Smirnov A.V. “Good” and “evil” in the Islamic tradition and philosophy (to pose the question). Selected texts // Ethical thought. Issue 8. M.: IFRAN, 2008. P. 160.
submission to His will.”86 The Koran says: “Say: “No one will save me [from God’s punishment], and I will not find a safe haven unless He wills, [and my power does not extend to anything else] except to proclaim the will of Allah and His messages.” Those who disobey Allah and His Messenger are destined for the fire of hell, in which they will remain forever.” (Quran, 72:22-23).
In order to correctly carry out the will of God, a clear understanding of what is “good” and what is “evil” is necessary. According to the theory of A.V. Smirnov, the analysis of actions permitted and prohibited by God led to the emergence of five main categories (the relationship between ethical teaching and fiqh is quite clearly visible here): obligatory (wajib, fard), recommended (mandub, sunnah), indifferent (mubah), not recommended (makrooh) and impermissible (haram, mahzur). Unlike fiqh, ethics involves considering all things in a binary category, namely: “good - evil.” The center of ethical teaching can rightfully be considered an act, i.e. a certain ethical act that connects the intention to perform it with the action itself aimed at its implementation. Intention and action represent "hidden" and "overt" respectively (or zahir and batin). As noted by A.V. Smirnov, zahir and batin are equivalent in meaning. Moreover, “zahir and batin are external and internal, which are pulled together by some process.
The third element that connects them is this process - the process of transition from batin "hidden" to zahir "explicit" and vice versa."87 Thus, intention and action cannot be considered separately from each other, and have meaning only in their interaction.
The first step to any action is intention, i.e. the decision to carry out this very act. In Muslim's Sahih we find Rezvan E.A. The Koran and its world. St. Petersburg: Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2001. P. 141.
Smirnov A.V. Architectonics of Muslim ethics // Ishraq: Yearbook of Islamic Philosophy. 2010, No. 1. M.: Eastern literature, 2010. P. 171.
the following: “Umar Ibn Al-Khattab said: “The Messenger of Allah said:
“Deeds are only by intention and a person only what he intended. So, whoever’s migration was (indeed) to Allah and His Messenger, his migration is to Allah and His Messenger. But he who migrated for the lower life in order to receive her or (for) a woman in order to marry her, then the migration of this was only to that to which he migrated."88 The "correct" intention has two criteria: a strong will (or iradah jazima) and sincerity. A person is fully responsible for his intention, because... it is entirely “internal.”
A decisive conviction to commit an act saves a person from unnecessary hesitation and doubts; moreover, the intention must be formed before the act is committed, otherwise the correct transition from “hidden” to “explicit” is impossible.
It is not only intention that determines the “correctness” of an action. The action itself is no less important, which is constantly emphasized in Muslim literature. According to the accepted commentaries of this hadith, intention does not entail responsibility if it is not expressed out loud, especially if it is not supported by action. The relationship between intention and action, when one is not “valid” without the other, explains, as noted by A.V. Smirnov, a kind of “utilitarian” bias in Muslim ethics.
Constant control of one’s thoughts and feelings, as well as the cultivation of the most important moral qualities, which primarily include truthfulness, patience, humility, trust in God, mercy and modesty, are called upon to combine the correct intention and action into a truly ethical act. Islamic classical thought prescribes when communicating with people to proceed from the principle of “preponderance of balance”, which means in any controversial situation to give preference to the opinion of Bukhari. Sahih. http://www.islam.by/sh/sb/ another. The logic of the argument is such that we always perceive the other as “not-me”, i.e. different from oneself, and therefore sometimes hostile.
“That is why, when considering relationships with others, Muslim authors consistently emphasize the need for preponderance in favor of the other:
It is in this “unequal equality” that a correct, from the point of view of Muslim ethics and Islamic law, relationship with another is established.”89 However, this does not contradict the principle of the “golden mean” in the ethical thought of Islam.
The relationship between “intention” and “action” seems to be the basis of all ethical reasoning. As noted by A.V. Smirnov, “the alpha and omega of ethical constructions in Arab-Muslim culture is the direct connection between intention and action.
The direct connection of intention and action determines the semantic content of these categories and their interaction in theoretical reasoning.”90 In addition, constant control over one’s thoughts and actions, tracking the moral foundations of each action helps to achieve balance in relationships among members of the ummah. “The Qur'an portrays an idealistic vision of a healthy society that adheres to the middle ground of unshakable moral principles, avoiding all forms of extremes.”91 The complex of rewarded and disapproved qualities is an integral part of ethical reasoning. As al-Ghazali (d.
in 1111), “Muslim society is distinguished primarily by such qualities as truthfulness in speech, discipline in execution and restraint in communication.”92 In addition, “truthfulness is a quality that affects all aspects of a person’s life, since neither Smirnov A.V. Muslim ethics as a system // Ethical thought. Vol. 6 / Rep. ed. A.A. Guseinov.
M.: Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2005. P. 59.
Right there. P. 69.
Dar B.A. Ethical teachings of the Qur’an // A History of Muslim philosophy. Vol. 1/ed. by M.M. Sharif.
Wiesbaden, 1963. P. 156.
Al-Ghazali, M. Morality of a Muslim. Kyiv: Ansar Foundation, 2006. P. 57.
words, neither his deeds nor his intentions will be accepted if he does not possess this quality.”93 Truthfulness must be sincere and expressed in the implementation of Sharia laws. “Thus, the reality of the external side of affairs is determined by adherence to Sharia, and the internal - sincerity.”94 Truthfulness is accompanied by the concept of “honesty” (or amanah). This concept is considered by Islamic thinkers in a very broad sense. “Amanah is a duty (faridah), which Muslims command each other to observe, asking for help from Allah so that He will help them observe it.”95 Patience, coupled with humility and trust in the Almighty, helps a person pass all life’s tests: “What if If you are patient and God-fearing, then this is due to firmness in action.”
(Quran, 3:186). “Patience is one of the signs of greatness and signs of perfection, as well as one of the indicators of the primacy of the soul over the world around it. That is why As-Sabur (the Long-suffering) is one of the beautiful names of Allah.”96 Patience is associated with courage, generosity and tolerance. “Muslims who live among their own kind and patiently endure all the troubles and sorrows that befall them are better than those who shun the company of their own kind and cannot bear even the most insignificant insult inflicted on them. (Abu Dawud).”97 Thus, “it is necessary to show patience, agreeing with the decision and predestination of Allah, which, undoubtedly, is one of the foundations of faith.”98 Among the virtues already mentioned, modesty stands out especially since “modesty is a sign confirming Dagestani A.A. Muslim ethics and morality. Alushta: Muslim community "Alushta" / Transl. V. (Abdullah) Nirsha, 2006. P. 98 Ibid. P. 97.
Al-Ghazali, M. Morality of a Muslim. Kyiv: Ansar Foundation, 2006. P. 71.
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Dagestani A. A. Muslim ethics and morality. Alushta: Muslim community "Alushta" / Transl. V. (Abdullah) Nirsha, 2006. P. 103.
human nature, for it reveals the significance of his faith and the degree of his upbringing”99. Modesty can be compared to an indicator of a person’s virtue: if it is present, then the person will not wallow in vice and will not deviate from the true path. Modesty is present in all aspects of a person's life, for example, in conversation a Muslim should be brief and refrain from indecent words and thoughts. Modesty in everyday life means that a person is content with only what is necessary, avoiding luxury and unnecessary expenses. Moreover, according to the famous hadith, Muhammad said that if every religion has its own character, then the character of Islam is modesty. “Modesty and faith are inextricably linked: without one there is no other.”100 It should be noted that Muhammad did not leave behind a systematized moral teaching: “ethics seemed to dissolve in his worldview: in the theoretical part it coincides with faith, in normative - with the right.”101 Moral teaching in Islam is based on Qur’anic sayings and on the personal example of Muhammad and his immediate circle. As noted by A.A. Huseynov, “the originality of Muslim ethics lies in the fact that it took as a model the life of one (and not a fictional one, like, for example, the sage of the Stoics, but a completely real) person in all the empirically detailed diversity of its manifestations. According to Muslim ethics, living with dignity and righteousness means living like Muhammad.”102 The ethics of Islam cannot be called rigoristic. It is quite “ within the power ” of an ordinary person, if you put in a little effort. In addition, Muslim ethics “comes from a more down-to-earth, but more realistic image of a person who fully understands and - most importantly - accepts Al-Ghazali, M. The morality of a Muslim. Kyiv: Ansar Foundation, 2006. P. 249.
Quote by Maqsood R. Islam. M.: FAIR PRESS, 1998. P. 237.
Veche, 2008. P. 177.
Right there. P. 178.
the limitations of one’s human capabilities.”103 Based on this, such fundamental ethical concepts as “good” and “evil” appear in a utilitarian meaning, approaching the concepts of “benefit” and “harm.”
Muhammad, as an example of a perfect (including in the moral sense) person, left behind many instructions showing people the path to God and salvation. “Indeed, Allah commands to do justice, do good deeds and give gifts to relatives.
He forbids obscene and reprehensible acts and wickedness.
He instructs you, so perhaps you will follow [His] advice” (Quran, 16:90). The essence of these instructions is the following: sincere piety, humility and the desire to serve God, which comes down to accepting the Will of God and submission to Him.104 However, the Muslim worldview does not come down only to submission to God (Islam), which is included in it along with other components. As W. Chittick notes, “these components are “submission” (Islam), “faith” (iman) and “creation of beauty” (ihsan).105 The term “Islam” in this context includes adherence to the five pillars of the Muslim religion . Iman means belief in God, angels and messengers, in Divine predestination, in the day of judgment and the afterlife. “As for “creating beauty,” the Prophet said that this means “serving God as if you saw Him, for even if you do not see Him, He sees you.”106 M. Legenhausen understands Islam as external submission, under iman - faith, and ihsan represents as virtue.107 The first two components correspond to Sharia and Fiqh, respectively. Shariah is a system of regulations
Guseinov A.A. Great Prophets and Thinkers: Moral Teachings from Moses to the Present Day. M.:
Veche, 2008. P. 180.
Maksud R. Islam. M.: FAIR PRESS, 1998. P. 8.
Chittik U. Sufism: a guide for the beginner. M.: Eastern literature, 2012. P. 20.
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Legensausen M. Modern issues of Islamic thought. M.: Feoriya, 2010. P. 108.
which every Muslim is obliged to observe - this is the very first stage of religious knowledge. Fiqh is characterized by a deeper understanding of religion, because here we enter the realm of the mind. Attempts at rational explanation lead to a better understanding of oneself and the world around us. At the third stage of cognition, the believer finds a way to approach God and strives to “grasp” the picture of the world with his inner gaze, going beyond the limits of his sensually determined existence.
Particular attention is paid here to spiritual and moral improvement. “Thus, if the first aspect of Islam concerns the actions that believers must perform because of the established relationship with God and others, and the second concerns our understanding of ourselves and others, then the third shows the path to achieving intimacy with God.”108 Transformations that are performed at the third stage of religious experience, the next section is devoted to.
2.2. Sufi ethical teaching The founders of Sufism were the ascetic mystics of the first centuries of Islam, which explains the characteristic features of the Sufi worldview. In particular, if classical Muslim ethics places emphasis on the relationship between members of the ummah, highlighting the idea of moral improvement and the acquisition of basic social virtues, then in Sufism, as a rule, there is a shift in the ethical imperative towards personal improvement as the basis of spiritual quest and mystical enlightenment . Sufism “is the path that purifies the human soul, it is a mirror of true Islamic life. Its goal is to cleanse a person from everything negative and decorate Chittik U. Sufism: a guide for a beginner. M.: Eastern literature, 2012. P. 23.
his soul with all the positive qualities.”109 Qushayri gives the following definition of Sufism: “They asked Abu Muhammad al-Jurairi about Sufism: “This means accepting all high moral traits and abandoning all base ones.”110 Based on the concept of moral improvement developed by classical Islam, the Sufi worldview introduces new mystical elements into it, thereby creating a special ethical theory. “Tasawwuf is the knowledge of how to cleanse the soul of various shortcomings, diseases and negative qualities, such as hatred, envy, deception, arrogance, argument, anger, stinginess, greed, neglect of the poor and admiration of the rich. Tasawwuf studies these defects and ways to treat them. That is, Sufism teaches to get rid of vices in order to cleanse the heart and dhikr from everything except Allah."111 Moreover, as W. Chittick notes, "the real Sufi path implies a process of internal rebirth, as a result of which all parts of the human soul turn to God.”112 And Ibn Arabi emphasizes that tasawwuf is, first of all, ethics, saying that “tasawwuf is the embodiment of explicit and hidden moral norms prescribed by Sharia.”113 In other words, Sufism shows a person the true path of improvement and Divine knowledge .
Absolute trust in God (tawakkul) is the core of the Sufi worldview. The Koran says: “Trust in God alone, if you truly believe” (Koran, 5:23). When Junayd (d. 910) was asked what “trust” meant, he replied: “When the heart relies on Allah in any circumstances.”114 Zu-n-Nun was defined by Muhammad Yu. Encyclopedia of Sufism. M.: Ansar, 2005. P. 20.
Al-Qushayri Abu l-Q. Epistle on Susm. Al-Risala al-qushayriyya ‘ilm al-tasawwuf. London: Garnet Publishing, 2007. P. 289.
Muhammad Yu. Encyclopedia of Sufism. M.: Ansar, 2005. P. 27.
Chittik U. Sufism: a guide for beginners. M.: Eastern literature, 2012. P. 38.
Muhammad Yu. Encyclopedia of Sufism. M.: Ansar, 2005. P. 29.
At-Tusi, A. N. as-S. Kitab al-luma fi-t-tasavwuf (“The most brilliant in Sufism”) // Reader on Islam / Comp. and resp. ed. Prozorov S.M. M.: Nauka, 1994. P. 148.
tawakkul as “perfect certainty”, because it is necessary for true tawhid: “God in His absoluteness is the only subject of action, so man must rely completely on Him.”115 Most “moderate” mystics practiced tawakkul as the embodiment of tawhid. This aspect of tawakkul is one of the basic concepts of Sufi ethics. Al-Hasan al-Basri (died in 768) has the following statement, which best explains the connection between the concepts of “zuhd” and “tawakkul”: “The best thing is renunciation of the earthly world, for the “site of zuhd” also includes [“site of ”] trust in God (tawakkul) and satisfaction [with Him] (rid) […] Haven’t you heard the hads [of the Prophet Muhammad] that “Zuhd is when you rely more on what is in the hands of God than on what is what is in your hands.” And this is trust in God (tawakkul). Then [the Prophet Muhammad] said: “And when you will be more glad of the disaster, even if it remained with you.” And this is satisfaction with God (read). Further. Knowledge of God (marifah) and love (mahabba) for God are included in the [contents] of zuhd. What “station” is higher than the “station” that embraces these four [“station”: trust in God (tawakkul), contentment with Him (rid), knowledge of God (marifa) and love for Him (mahabba)] - after all, they are the limit aspirations of the “seekers” (Taliban) [of Truth, that is, God].”116 Tawakkul is the main virtue in al-Ghazali’s ethical system. “The knowledge on which tawakkul is based is tawhid or awareness of the Wholeness of God.”117 Complete trust in God means that a person recognizes God as the true and only Creator of anything in the world, including the actions of man himself. As stated in the Risala
Qushayri: “Those who have completely trusted God are distinguished by three characteristics:
he does not ask, does not refuse [when given to him], does not hold on [to something, Schimmel A. The World of Islamic Mysticism. M.: Sadra, 2012. P. 126.
Nasyrov I.R. Foundations of Islamic mysticism. Genesis and evolution. M.: Languages of Slavic Cultures, 2009. P. 80.
Umaruddin. M. The Ethical philosophy of al-Ghazzali. Delhi: Adam Publishers, 1996. P. 265.
what was given to him].”118 Following tavvakkul, a person accepts the fullness of existence, I perceive any event through the prism of Divine Wisdom and Perfection. “And the state of tawakkul is achieved only by faith in the One on whom one trusts, and the state of peace of heart is in the correct vision of the one whom He cares for.”119 The concept of tawakkul, which is perhaps the central concept in the Sufi ethical system, includes several components , the most significant of which will be “poverty” (faqr) and “patience” (sabr). Poverty is understood not only as an ascetic practice - renunciation of worldly goods, but, most importantly, as a method of approaching God, because “Whoever looks at the external stops at the external, unable to reach the goal and missing the essence.”120 Poverty is also understood in the spiritual sense, i.e. like a lack of desire to be rich. Junayd said that “Poverty is the liberation of the heart from the forms of existence.”121 Such poverty represents the destruction of all “stations”, the desire to abolish all other attributes of a person, thereby “dying”, achieving the state of fan in order to be able to unite with God. “This interpretation of faqr is expressed in a saying that was included in the standard set of late Sufism: al-faqr iza tamma huwa Allah, “when the faqr reaches perfection (completeness), this is God.”122 Al-Ghazali believed that a person should strive for poverty, because
it is a commendable quality; “on the other hand, the poverty of Al-Qushayri Abu l-Q. Epistle on Susm. Al-Risala al-qushayriyya ‘ilm al-tasawwuf. London: Garnet Publishing, 2007. P. 178.
Science, 1980. P. 228.
Al-Hujwiri. Revealing what is hidden behind the veil for those versed in the secrets of hearts (Kashf al-mahjub li arbab al-qulub). M.: Unity, 2004. P. 20.
Right there. P. 27.
Schimmel A. The world of Islamic mysticism. M.: Sadra, 2012. P. 131.
described as a misfortune, as a test sent to people”123. In addition, ““closeness to God,” the chosenness of a Muslim is directly dependent on the degree of his poverty and asceticism.”124 In his book on poverty and asceticism, al-Ghazali writes: “Know that poverty is a deprivation of what is necessary. Deprivation of unnecessary things is not called poverty.”125 An equally important quality for a Sufi is patience (sabr). There is a tradition that Hassan al-Basri was once asked what “patience” is, and he replied: “Patience is twofold: it is enduring troubles and adversities and abstaining from what God commanded to avoid and what God forbade to follow.”126 Trials bring a person closer to God, therefore, one should be grateful for them just like for all joys. Gratitude (shukr) is a derivative of tawakkul and is impossible without it. “The realization that all human joys come from God is the root of shukr. The embodiment of this truth or belief in it is shukr.”127 As noted by A.V. Smirnov, “the ethical teaching of Sufism is characterized by the preservation of the original general Islamic principles: the doctrine of intention (niyya) as directly associated with action and determining its character, and the closely related position of the inseparability of action and knowledge”128. At the same time, these provisions are subject to transformation in the Sufi context: for example, the five main postulates of the Muslim faith are viewed somewhat differently in Sufism. “The Sufis certainly accepted the formula “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah,” however, from Naumkin V.V. Treatise by Ghazali “Resurrection of the Sciences of Faith” // Al-Ghazali, Abu Muhammad. Resurrection of the sciences of faith (Ihya" "ulum ad-din"). Selected chapters. M.: Nauka, 1980. P. 69.
Right there. P. 73.
Al-Ghazali, Abu Muhammad. Resurrection of the sciences of faith (Ihya" "ulum ad-din"). Selected chapters. M.:
Science, 1980. P. 192.
Al-Hujwiri. Revealing what is hidden behind the veil for those versed in the secrets of hearts (Kashf al-mahjub li arbab al-qulub). M.: Unity, 2004. P. 86.
Umaruddin. M. The Ethical philosophy of al-Ghazzali. Delhi: Adam Publishers, 1996. P. 269.
Smirnov A.V. Sufism // Ethics. Encyclopedic Dictionary / Under. ed. R.G. Apresyan and A.A.
Guseinova. M.: Gardariki, 2001. P. 483.
What was said in the previous chapters, it clearly follows that their interpretation of this formula was in many ways radically different from the traditional one: religious monotheism was opposed to a significant extent by the pantheistic understanding of God and the created world, which Muslim orthodoxy ranked among the most “harmful” teachings.”129 Daily performance of five times prayer is an immutable rule for a Muslim, but among Sufis opinions differ regarding the observance of this postulate. “Mystics who advocate the elimination of intermediaries and a “direct conversation” between the believer and God recognize in principle the need to observe the second precept of Islam - the creation of prayer.”130 Some Sufis preferred other ways of addressing God, but basically the prayer rules, although often modified, were preserved .
Issues related to the payment of zakat and fasting are also interpreted ambiguously: “Fasting was perceived by them as an indispensable condition of their mystical practice: eating little, sleeping little, talking little - the principles of everyday life. They did not limit themselves to fasting for a month and sometimes fasted every other day for a year (saum daudi).”131 Junayd said that fasting is half the Path. As al-Hujwiri notes, “fasting in its essence is abstinence, and abstinence is a comprehensive rule on the Path (tariqa). ... Abstinence involves many obligations, for example, to keep the stomach without food and drink, to keep the eyes from lustful glances, the ear from listening to slander in the absence of the one about whom they are talking, the tongue from empty and abusive words, the body from following the worldly and from disobedience Stepanyants M.T. Philosophical aspects of Sufism. M.: Nauka, 1987. P. 46.
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God.”132 In addition, “fasting helps to cleanse the base “I” (nafs) and eradicate bad habits.”133 M.T. Stepanyants notes that “the question of zakat in relation to members of many orders, say Chishti, is in principle inappropriate, because ideally they should be in poverty and live on alms.”134 AlHujwiri believes that “in fact, zakat is gratitude for the income received in the same form as the income itself. For example, health is the greatest gain for which every part of the body gives zakat.
Therefore, a healthy person must engage all members of the body in worship and not give them any concessions in order to fully pay the zakat for the grace of health.”135 Hajj was also not considered obligatory, because Sufis emphasized that the most important pilgrimage is a journey into the depths of one’s own heart. “In other words, to pilgrimage as an external manifestation of religious virtue, Sufis contrast a “pilgrimage” into the depths of their own consciousness, or rather, the soul, which is a true “divine treasure.”136 Therefore, as al-Hujwiri writes, “it is not the Kaaba that is truly significant, but contemplation and disappearance (fana) in the abode of friendship, in comparison with which the vision of the Kaaba is a secondary impulse.”137 The immutable rules of Sharia, mandatory for a Muslim, were inevitable at the first stage of the Sufi path, because an inexperienced student needs guidelines in order not to stray from it. Despite different opinions regarding the obligatory implementation of Sharia rules, almost all Sufis agree on one thing: there is a guideline, Al-Hujwiri. Revealing what is hidden behind the veil for those versed in the secrets of hearts (Kashf al-mahjub li arbab al-qulub). M.: Unity, 2004. P. 321.
Safavi S. Practical mysticism. Irfan-e amali. M.: Academic Project, 2013. P. 36.
Stepanyants M.T. Philosophical aspects of Sufism. M.: Nauka, 1987. P. 50.
Al-Hujwiri. Revealing what is hidden behind the veil for those versed in the secrets of hearts (Kashf al-mahjub li arbab al-qulub). M.: Unity, 2004. P. 314.
Stepanyants M.T. Philosophical aspects of Sufism. M.: Nauka, 1987. P. 49.
Al-Hujwiri. Revealing what is hidden behind the veil for those versed in the secrets of hearts (Kashf al-mahjub li arbab al-qulub). M.: Unity, 2004. P. 328.
that everyone should look up to. Such a reference point, as a rule, appears to be the Perfect Man, the ideal of which is widespread in Sufism.
The Perfect Man In Islam, the Perfect Man (al-insan al-kamil) is considered a mediator between God and people. The Koran says: “Remember how your Lord said to the angels: “I will appoint a governor on earth”” (Koran, 2:30). There is an assumption that the theory of the Perfect Man was widespread in the Middle East and the Mediterranean region, and penetrated into Islam from Neoplatonic and Gnostic teachings about the Logos.
“In Muslim theology, the term al-insan al-kamil was first used by Ibn Arabi. Before him, terms similar in meaning are found in the pseudo “Theology of Aristotle” - insan awwal (“first man”) and in Abu Yazid al-Bistami - al-kamil at-tamm (“perfect, complete [man]”).”138 The Perfect Man as the deputy of God on earth, he is called upon to maintain world order and instruct lost people: “The best worship, in the opinion of the Perfect Man, is changing the world for the better and spreading the truth among the people, eradicating evil and reprehensible acts, calling to the One God, notifying people about the greatness and power of the Lord , a description of the Day of Judgment, informing people about eternity and the structure of the upper world, about the frailty and fragility of the earthly world.”139 The concept of the Perfect Man occupied one of the leading places in the teachings of Ibn Arabi, which is usually denoted by the term vahdat alwujud, i.e. "unity of being" In this concept, the Absolute’s desire for self-knowledge is expressed in the act of creating the world, which explains Knysh A. Al-insan al-kamil // Islam. Encyclopedic Dictionary / Answer. editor S.M. Prozorov.
M.: Nauka, 1991. P. 101.
Zarrinkub A.Kh. The value of Sufi heritage. St. Petersburg: Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2012. P. 244.
the emergence of the Perfect Man. Temin vahdat means both a number (unit) and something united and unique. The one and only God was embodied in the names of his essence, the main of which are three:
Allah, God and Merciful. Consequently, our entire sensory-tangible and intelligible world was born from trinity: “The odd trinity, further, also appeared in that thing, and it was created and received being for its part also thanks to this trinity. This trinity is the materiality of this thing, obedience and adherence to the command to exist of its Creator”140. Triplicity is “the essence of the root in odd numbers, because the number “one” (wahid) is not essentially a number and does not explain the appearance of plurality in the world: for nothing follows from one except one. And the simplest numbers within plurality are “three.”141 Thus, being realized in essences, the Absolute loses part of its “self-sufficiency”, because the world becomes a necessary mode of his existence.
This being “depends on the being of individual objects, and detailed knowledge about these individual objects depends on it.”142 Thus, “having acquired its logical correlate (ma’luh), the Absolute receives the features of a deity (ilah), endowed with certain “names and attributes “(prototypes and possibilities) that have external and concrete existence”143. The divine attributes are gathered together and fully embodied only in the “perfect man” (al-insan alkamil). On the one hand, the Perfect Man embodies all the Divine Names, being the viceroy of God on earth. But, on the other hand, “a perfect person is the goal of the existence of everything Ibn Arabi. Gems of wisdom // Smirnov A.V. The Great Sheikh of Sufism (experience of paradigmatic analysis of the philosophy of Ibn Arabi). M.: Nauka, 1993. pp. 199-200.
354.(...-: 9791. Ganam T. Basic principles of Sufism. Cairo, 1979. P. 354).
Ibn Arabi. Image of circles // Ibn Arabi. Meccan revelations (al-Futuhat almakkiyya) / Trans. HELL. Knysha. St. Petersburg: Center “Petersburg Oriental Studies”, 1995. P. 67.
Knysh A.D. Vahdat al-Wujud // Islam. Encyclopedic Dictionary / Answer. editor S.M. Prozorov.
M.: Nauka, 1991. P. 48.
of the universe, since God manifests all His attributes only through a perfect person, only in him does wujud achieve full development.”144 It should be noted that “what if Ibn Arabi’s al-insan al-kamil carries predominantly (and perhaps exclusively) metaphysical function of a principle that solves the problem of the single and the plural, the general and the particular, essence and phenomenon, then in the ideas of later Sufis the religious functions of the Perfect Man, acting as an intermediary between God and man, come to the fore.”145 Ibn Arabi represented the whole world as a projection of the Divine essence. Having created the world, God began to create man, and, as Ibn Arabi notes, “he made a copy of the entire universe so that there was not a single essence left in it that was not in man.”146 The attributes of divine perfection are most fully embodied only in man. Therefore, in the Perfect Man, of which Muhammad is the embodiment, the Absolute knows itself in all its completeness.147 Ibn Arabi’s follower, al-Jili (d. 1166), considered Muhammad “the Most Perfect of the Perfect” (akmal alkummal).148 “Nobody of all living beings does not possess such perfection in terms of his morality and nature as Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). I know that the “perfect man” is the pole around which all the orbits of existence revolve, and this pole is eternal and the only one from the beginning of the creation of the universe.”149 As J. Subhan notes, “man is a microcosm in which the Chittik U. The doctrine of the unity of being in Ibn Arabi // Sufi, 2012. No. 14. P. 38.
Stepanyants M.T. Philosophical aspects of Sufism. M.: Nauka, 1987. P. 50.
Ibn Arabi. Fetters for those preparing to jump // Ibn Arabi. Meccan revelations (al-Futuhat almakkiyya). St. Petersburg: Center “Petersburg Oriental Studies”, 1995. P. 168.
Jeffery A. Ibn fl-‘Arabi’s Shajarat al-Kawn // Studia Islamia, 1959. No. 10. P. 46.
Knysh A. Al-insan al-kamil // Islam. Encyclopedic Dictionary / Answer. editor S.M. Prozorov.
M.: Nauka, 1991. P. 101.
Al-Jili, A.K. “Perfect man” in the mystical knowledge of his predecessors and followers. Chapter 60: “The Perfect Man,” or Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), as the personification of the justice of creation / Trans. from Arabic O.I. Nisiforova // Bulletin of RUDN University, series Philosophy, 2010, No. 4. P. 83.
all attributes, and in him alone the Absolute becomes the creator of Itself in all its various aspects.”150 It is believed that the level of al-insan al-kamil can be reached by both prophets and saints. For ordinary followers of Sufism, the benchmark of the Perfectly Human was the spiritual and moral ideal that they sought to achieve. Among the Sufis there is an opinion that “the perfect person is the one who perfectly masters four things: good words, good deeds, praiseworthy character and enlightenment.”151 Moreover, some researchers, for example, M.T. Stepanyants believe that the concept of al-insan al-kamil contains important ethical principles. One of them is the idea of improvement on the path of self-knowledge. But, at the same time, “the very posing of the question of the possibility of an individual achieving the level of alinsan al-kamil contains a challenge to the Muslim idea of fatalism.”152 In connection with this, the question arises: are our actions free (including with regard to the desire for improvement) and how then do our actions relate to Divine Will and predestination?
Free will and Divine predestination It is believed that the world exists thanks to God and His Will. At the same time, if God created man, made him his vicegerent and endowed him with the ability to act, an obvious problem arises: it turns out that the actions of people seem to be autonomous, beyond the scope of “Divine competence”. If you pay attention to the fact that a person is recognized as responsible for his thoughts and actions, because the Quran says: “Allah does not place Subhan J.A. on a person. Sufism. His saints and shrines. M.-SPb: DILYA, 2005. P. 54.
Zarrinkub A. Kh. The value of the Sufi heritage. St. Petersburg: Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2012. P. 242.
Stepanyants M.T. Philosophical aspects of Sufism. M.: Nauka, 1987. P. 51.
beyond his capabilities. He will get what he acquired, and what he acquired will be against him” (Quran, 2:286, trans. E. Kuliev), then the contradiction seems insoluble. In addition, if a person is not a true agent of his actions, then a moral act would be impossible as such, because an ethical act is based on a free and rational choice: “Recognition of the complete predetermination of human actions would make it pointless to embark on the path of improvement, which the Sufis called for and what formed the basis of their teaching and practice. Hence arose the desire to combine the omnipotence of God and the free will of man.”153 Sufis reconcile these two contradictions with the help of a synthesis, which is based on the assertion that God exists and has all the fullness of knowledge. Moreover, since God is eternal, the objects of His knowledge are also eternal, because knowledge is an attribute of God and cannot be separated from Him. The ideas of God (or essence) are not created and have their own “nature” (shaqila). “So creation is an act of will. The Will of God is subject to the Knowledge of God. Creation is the external manifestation or actualization of the Ideas of God, or essences.... The actualized Ideas are called things”154. God creates things according to their appropriateness, which are uncreated and eternal. The essence of things, i.e. The ideas of God are expressed according to their qualities and characteristics. “This is the aspect of choice and free will, but God alone expresses them - this is the aspect of determinism.”155 The essence of each person includes the entire possible set of his qualities and characteristics. “Man is not predetermined in the sense that his qualities can be considered a Divine creation. The essential nature of a person, or, in other words, his essence (ayyan), is not created, and, for this reason, he enjoys free will and choice.”156 Stepanyants M.T. Philosophical aspects of Sufism. M.: Nauka, 1987. P. 52.
Validdin M. Quranic Sufism. St. Petersburg: DILYA, 2004. P. 118.
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Right there. P. 122.
The divine plan was manifested in the intentional creation of the human will, which is a good, a gift to man. The human mind, using the data of experience and predicting the consequences of actions, coupled with the will expressed in the desire to achieve a particular goal, constitutes human free will. As al-Ghazali writes, free will must be based on the human mind, “after all, just knowing that this or that desire can harm you is not enough to give it up; a craving for action predetermined by knowledge is also necessary. By this will you have distinguished yourself from the animals over which man has an advantage, and, in addition, you are also distinguished by your knowledge of consequences.”157 According to al-Ghazali, the mind (aql) is the embodiment of the Divine in man, therefore it must control all other “departments.” human “I”, following the drives, desires and impulses, especially those coming from the nafs. It is thanks to reason that “man occupies an intermediate position between animals and angels.”158 According to Ibn Arabi’s theory, the world appears as a reflection of Divine reality, therefore, “everything acquires its wujud, its existence, “being found,” i.e. noticed by God.”159 Outside of correlation with God, man and the world as a whole do not have any substantial significance. From an ethical point of view, everything that happens in this world, including the act of creation itself, happens according to the “desire” of God or according to His Will (al-irada), because only He has true existence. “Know that predestination (qada) is God’s judgment (hukm) about things, and God judges things according to how He knows them and about them, and God knows things as they are given by those who know them, what they are. Fate is temporary
Al-Ghazali, Abu Muhammad. Resurrection of the sciences of faith (Ihya" "ulum ad-din"). Selected chapters. M.:
Science, 1980. P. 167.
Umaruddin M. The Ethical philosophy of al-Ghazzali. Delhi: Adam Publishers, 1996. P. 98.
Schimmel A. The world of Islamic mysticism. M.: Sadra, 2012. P. 268.
the realization (tawkit) of things as they are in their embodied essence, and nothing more. So predestination judges things through themselves, not otherwise.”160 But, at the same time, “every thing in the universe reveals certain aspects of Divine life, knowledge, will and power by the very fact that it is wujud.”161 The Divine Will has established laws favorable to man so that he can worship God and work for his own good. God “created this good deed solely for our sake, that we might enjoy it and abide in it. And so He put us in charge and gave us complete freedom.”162 As noted by A.V. Smirnov, “only what should and can happen happens, and what happens to a person is determined by what he is, everyone himself and only himself is responsible for everything that happens to him.”163 The theme of free will and predestination occupies a special place in Rumi’s work (d. 1273). He expresses the idea that a person is capable of managing his own actions and being responsible for them. As N. Odilov notes, “if no one except God has a will, then why are you angry with the culprit, gritted your teeth at the enemy who committed the crime. But a piece of wood falling from the ceiling and inflicting a deep wound on you doesn’t make you feel revenge? Do you hate him?”164 Moreover, Rumi says that the concept of predestination can be dangerous because
completely paralyzes a person, preventing him from actively acting.
Indeed, some zahids (“hermits”) believed that “daily bread was appointed by God from eternity; no effort could be taken by the servant of God Ibn Arabi. Gems of Wisdom // Smirnov A.V. The Great Sheikh of Sufism (experience of paradigmatic analysis of the philosophy of Ibn Arabi). M.: Nauka, 1993. P. 212.
Chittik U. The doctrine of the unity of being in Ibn Arabi // Sufi, 2012. No. 14. P. 37.
Ibn Arabi. Meccan revelations. Chapter 178 // Ibn Arabi. Meccan revelations. (al-Futuhat almakkiyya). St. Petersburg: Petersburg Oriental Studies, 1995. P. 189.
Science, 1993. P. 122.
Odilov. N. Worldview of Jalaladin Rumi. Dushanbe: Irfon, 1974. P. 89.
can neither increase his share nor avoid receiving it.
Therefore, there is no need to earn money, you need to wait for what God, in his mercy, will send down.”165 Meanwhile, “a person realizes that he is driven by the incomprehensible Divine will and at the same time he enjoys freedom, which cannot be compared with that illusory and imperfect “freedom”, which rationalist theologians talk about. To achieve this sublime awareness of both complete freedom and complete dependence on the Divine will, the believer must apply all his zeal in the service of God, and not wait for this awareness to be granted to him by the Lord.”166 Good and Evil Human free will is often interpreted Sufis not only as a Divine gift, but also a test. Satan was initially subjected to this test. Satan (Iblis) - the embodiment of the forces of Evil, appears in the Sufi interpretation in a very unusual light for traditional Islam.
Satan is not credited with absolute power over people; he can seduce and tempt them, but he has no power over man. “Iblis was never perceived by Muslims as “absolute evil”; he is God's creation and therefore a useful instrument in His hands."167 Some Sufis present Satan as a true believer, because Satan refuses to worship anyone other than God, even if it violates the Divine will, thereby becoming a rejected lover whose Beloved turned away from him. In this regard, al-Ghazali, one of those Bertels E.E. The origin of Sufism and the origin of Sufi literature // Bertels E.E.
Selected works. Sufism and Sufi literature. M.: Nauka, 1965. P. 17.
Knysh A.D. Muslim mysticism. St. Petersburg: DILYA, 2004. P. 183.
Schimmel A. The world of Islamic mysticism. M.: Sadra, 2012. P. 200.
representatives of Sufism who tried to “justify” Satan said:
“He who does not learn tawhid from Satan is an infidel.”168 Such an unusual interpretation of the image of Satan presents in a completely different light another story fundamental to all Abrahamic religions - the myth of the Fall of Adam. This plot completely changes its semantic coloring in the work of Ahmad Samani “Rauh al-arwakh”, which is interpreted by W. Chittick.169 The relationship between God and man, according to Samani, is based on the internal experience of comprehending the Divine: “The goal of every mystic is to recreate that love union , which was sealed on that day (the day of the covenant) when God declared His lordship, and all the souls of men and women received it in perfect submission.”170 Since God created the whole world, He alone has true existence. Things do not have ontological status in the true sense, so it is appropriate to call them “unreally existing” or “relative non-entities.” However, “existence is not an illusion, but a means by which all creation, especially man, can manifest God, who, according to Sufi ideas, was a hidden treasure and wanted to be discovered.”171 By revealing Himself in His ideas, God expresses Himself, and, imposing His qualities on Ideas, creates things. The essences of things do not possess true existence, therefore they are involved in relative non-existence, or Evil. Creation is a manifestation of Divine qualities, which, being perfect and eternal, cannot be fully embodied in created things. Therefore, “certain qualities of the Absolute Being (God) may be revealed in images, forms or essences, and many of them are omitted; qualities, Schimmel A. The world of Islamic mysticism. M.: Sadra, 2012. P. 201.
See Chittick W. K. The myth of the Fall of Adam in the work of Ahmad Samani “Rauh al-arwah” // Sufi, 2006.
No. 4. pp. 22-35.
Awn P. J. The Ethical concerns of classical Sufism // The journal of Religious Ethics, 1983. Vol. 11, No. 2. P.
Heck P.L. Mysticism as morality. The case of Sufism // The journal of religious Ethics, 2006. Vol. 34, no. 2.
those who express themselves act in accordance with the qualities of the entities.
Through the qualities that are omitted, one can understand Evil. Evil is another name for non-existence.”172 Thus, the origin of evil is the result of imperfect entities, which, being such, relate to non-existence, which in itself is evil.
As you can see, the world and God are related to each other as “manifest” and “hidden”. In such a context, the “explicit” and the “hidden” are constantly changing and mutually transitioning into one another, while neither of them can exist without the other and is not more “true” or more significant. This approach to the interpretation of two opposites (God the creator and the created world) is called confusion (khayra).
The principle of “confusion” can be applied to characterize Ibn Arabi’s ethical theory. In it, virtue does not have ontological status, because its definition is not established once and for all, but changes along with the rest of the things of this world. In addition, the world, as a reflection of God, cannot be “imperfect,” just as one thing cannot be superior to another in this world. As noted by A.V.
Smirnov, interpreting the ethical theory of Ibn Arabi, “every thing is good (the opposite of good does not exist at all), since it acts as a temporary embodiment of a single being, inextricably linked with its eternal hypostasis, or Divine “incarnation.” Simply put, every thing is good, for it is an embodiment (narrower or broader) of God.”173 If every thing is involved in good, then evil as such does not exist: “what is called (but is not) evil or disgusting is that which contradicts the views or the intentions of an individual person (or other living being): in this case, the attitude towards something as evil Waliddin M. Quranic Sufism. St. Petersburg: DILYA, 2004. P. 137.
Smirnov A.V. The Great Sheikh of Sufism (experience of paradigmatic analysis of the philosophy of Ibn Arabi). M.:
Science, 1993. P. 123.
conditioned by the peculiarities of your character or temperament or the institutions of the religious Law, while in itself this thing is unconditionally good.”174 Thus, “every thing as such, taken in itself, is neither good nor bad; ethical assessment is a function not of the thing itself, but of the correlation of this thing with something.”175 An example is the strict ban on the use of alcohol, which can be violated if a person is in danger of death, and another liquid, if it is necessary, so as not to to die, not at hand. It turns out that it is not the act itself that is important, but its ultimate goal. In true meaning, according to the theory of Ibn Arabi, the goal can only be God. Consequently, “any “correlation” must be turned into a correlation with God. This is the ethical imperative implied by the teachings of Ibn Arabi.”176 Rumi’s view of the concepts of “good” and “evil” seems more “conventional.”
In contrast to Ibn Arabi's concept, which states that everything in the world is good, Rumi believes that God wills both good and evil: “His desire for evil (sharr) would be bad (qabih) if He desired it for its own sake (li-ayni-hi), which would remain a meaningless statement if evil were not evil “as such” (bi-l-'ayn).”177 Evil is seen as a creation of God that is present in the world. Moreover, “contrary to the view that the existence of evil indicates the imperfection of God, Rumi says that the presence of evil demonstrates the fullness of God’s limitless power, knowledge and goodness.”178 Evil, therefore, can be seen as a kind of litmus test for all events in this world: it helps to appreciate goodness and recognize its essence. Rumi claims that it is impossible to do good to a person, Smirnov A. Instructions for those seeking God. Foundations of ethics in the philosophy of Ibn Arabi // Medieval Arabic philosophy. M.: Eastern literature, 1998. P. 302.
Right there. P. 316.
Smirnov A. Instructions for those seeking God. Foundations of ethics in the philosophy of Ibn Arabi // Medieval Arabic philosophy. M.: Eastern literature, 1998. P. 318.
Smirnov A.V. Dualism and monism: the differences and similarities between two versions of Sufi ethics // Comparative philosophy: Moral philosophy in the context of cultural diversity. M.: Eastern literature", 2004. P. 251.
Maurice Z. Evil from Rumi’s point of view // In the garden of love. Anthology of the magazine "Sufi". M., 2011. P. 95.
if some kind of evil did not befall him (a well-known example about a baker who needs a person to experience hunger, i.e. evil, in order to feed him - to do him good).
God contains all the opposites of this world, which in essence are the result of the interaction of two main Divine attributes - Grace and Wrath. “From Rumi’s point of view, the manifestation of Divine mercy and wrath is necessary not only in order to discover the greatness and perfection of God, but also for the spiritual development of man.”179 As Ibn Arabi noted, man contains all the Divine qualities within himself and is imprisoned in him. the prototype of all existence. This is how Rumi describes the first man and the prophet: “Adam is the measure // of the attributes of Sublimity // By which the orbit of manifestations // of God’s signs is described.”180 Man is the final goal and meaning of the creation of this world, therefore the Essence of the Creator is reflected in him, including including the whole set of opposites.
Two principles constantly struggle in a person:
animal or base soul (nafs) and angelic or rational (aql). As Rumi firmly believes, “only with the enlightened eye of the mind can one perceive the Divine unity hidden behind the veil of constant interaction between Grace and Wrath, Beauty and Majesty.”181 Man is endowed with “a soul that encourages evil (nafs 'ammara bi-s-su') , it is this that constitutes an obstacle to a person’s path of following the paths of good, an obstacle, without which, a person would without hesitation choose this very good path.”182 Such manifestations of a person’s base soul are called in the ethics of Rumi Hirs.
Maurice Z. Evil from Rumi’s point of view // In the garden of love. Anthology of the magazine "Sufi". M., 2011. P. 101.
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Smirnov A.V. Dualism and monism: differences and similarities between two versions of Sufi ethics // Comparative philosophy: Moral philosophy in the context of cultural diversity. M.: Eastern literature, 2004. P. 248.
Moral improvement The fight against nafs is the primary task of any mystic and a favorite topic of Sufism. Teachers have always warned their students against the tricks of the self. “When a person obeys God in everything, his base soul submits to its master, just as everything in the world submits to one whose will is completely obedient to the will of God.”183 Complete surrender of oneself to the will of God is the highest degree of renunciation of one’s own nafs, practically dissolution in God. Dissolution in God (or return to Him) presupposes one’s own moral improvement: renunciation of one’s own desires, proper behavior, spiritual practices, etc. “Immersed in himself, abstracted from everything external, the mystic learns to cognize his physical and mental abilities, regulate them, achieving a state of peace or a special type of exaltation. He must free himself from the egoistic “I” and achieve unity with the Absolute: “Throw away created nature from yourself,” al-Hallaj instructs, “why do you need it, who would become Him, and He you in reality!”184 Moral improvement as necessary the stage of approaching God brings to the fore thinking about the praiseworthy and blameworthy qualities of a person. “Their greatest quality is their behavior. His Lordship Mulla al-Muwahhin ‘Ali (‘a) said: “And the God-fearing in him - in him - are from among the people who have advantages: their word is accurate, their attire is modest, their step is measured.
Such people keep their eyes on what Allah has forbidden them, and fix their ears on knowledge that is useful for them.
Their souls are immersed [in the abyss] of trials, as if they were indulged in rest. Debauchery is disgusting for him, his speech is condescending, what is disapproved in him is hidden, what is encouraged in him is open, good awaits
Schimmel A. The world of Islamic mysticism. M.: Sadra, 2012. P. 122.
Stepanyants M.T. Philosophical aspects of Sufism. M.: Nauka, 1987. P. 60.
he is ahead, evil is left behind him. He is filled with dignity when shocked, patience when oppressed, gratitude when rested.”185 As al-Hujwiri writes, “the rules of behavior when communicating with people consist of following virtue (muruvwat); from a religious point of view, they consist in following the custom of the Messenger (Sunnah); from a position of love, they consist of showing respect (hurmat).”186 The rules of behavior can be divided into three large components.
“The first is the etiquette observed towards the Lord in unity (tawhid). The rule here is to refrain yourself in public and alone from disrespectful actions and behave as if you were in the presence of a king.”187 The second aspect of behavior concerns the inner self of a person.
According to al-Ghazali's theory, man contains both the divine and the animal principles and has a certain set of abilities or aspirations, which, acting under the authority of reason, rush to the knowledge of God, “and the meaning of God constitutes the pinnacle of human perfection.”188 Supreme happiness for humans “consists of seven elements:
life without death, pleasure without suffering, wealth without poverty, perfection without flaws, joy without sorrow, respect without disdain and knowledge without ignorance - all this will be eternal and unchanging.
This eternal bliss, the ultimate goal or ideal, can be achieved through the love of God, which reveals itself as right behavior in this world.”189 The third aspect of behavior, according to al-Hujwiri, is communication with other people.
“The main principle of Sufi communication:
Safavi S. Practical mysticism. Irfan-e amali. M.: Academic Project, 2013. P. 50.
Al-Hujwiri. Revealing what is hidden behind the veil for those versed in the secrets of hearts (Kashf al-mahjub li arbab al-qulub). M.: Unity, 2004. P. 334.
Right there. P. 335.
Al-Ghazali at-Tusi, Abu Hamid Muhammad. Revival of religious sciences (Ihya ulum ad-din." M.:
Nurul Irshad, 2007. Vol.1. P. 66.
Umaruddin M. The Ethical philosophy of al-Ghazzali. Delhi: Adam Publishers, 1996. P. 125.
treat a person according to his dignity. A Sufi treats older people with respect, like a son treats his father; to equals - with gentle courtesy, as with brothers; to the younger ones - with love, as to his sons.”190 The Sufi is distinguished by a good disposition, because in him “there is no hatred, malice and envy.”191 Moreover, “moral virtue and loyalty to religious requirements are the hallmarks of the one who is called the saleh, or righteous, derived from this root are the words “righteousness,” “kindness,” “peace,” and “orderliness.”192 As Saadi (d. 1291) writes: “The way of life of the dervishes is praise and thanksgiving [to Allah] , service and obedience, self-sacrifice and contentment with little, confession of the unity of God and trust [in him], humility and patience.
[One] who possesses these properties is truly a dervish, even if he wears a [worldly] kaba. But a dissolute person who does not pray, a worshiper of lust and lust, who whiles away his days like nights, in the bonds of passions, and the nights like days, in the sleep of carelessness, devouring everything that comes to hand, expressing everything that comes to his tongue - [he is] a debauchee , although he is dressed in [Sufi] rags.”193 The most important moral qualities of a Sufi are humility, friendliness, ferocity, forgiveness, openness, good disposition, avoidance of hostility and anger, as well as gratitude to God for all His mercies. One of the most condemned qualities is pride, as it can turn a Sufi away from the true path.
There is a belief among Sufis that if communication does not bring benefit in a religious sense, then one should not communicate, i.e. it is necessary to communicate with those who are better or worse than the person himself in a moral sense. Then “in the first case it will be good for you, and in the second case it will be good for Al-Hujwiri. Revealing what is hidden behind the veil for those versed in the secrets of hearts (Kashf al-mahjub li arbab al-qulub). M.: Unity, 2004. P. 339.
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Chapter VIII
ETHICS IN MUSLIM SOCIETIES
Ethics in Muslim societies is represented by those teachings that are not characterized by the system-forming principles of Muslim ethics: the principle of direct connection between the external and internal and the principle of preponderant balance. This is primarily the teachings of the followers of ancient wisdom, as well as the ethics of early Ishraqism (philosophy of illumination). At the same time, there is no impassable boundary between Muslim ethics and ethics in Muslim societies, since the latter developed in the bosom of Arab-Muslim civilization and could not remain completely alien to its influence.
Arabic-language peripatetism, one of the schools of classical Arab-Muslim philosophy, is represented primarily by the names of al-Kindi (800-879), al-Farabi (870-950), Ibn Sina (Avicenna 980-1037), Ibn Tufayl (1110-1185) , Ibn Rushd (Averroes 1126-1198). These thinkers not only followed ancient models of philosophizing, but also put forward their own philosophical concepts, independent of Aristotelianism (for example, the concept of the separation of self and existence or the concept of selfhood, developed by Ibn Sina). Other authors, such as Miskawaih (932-1030) or Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-1274), were mainly limited to reproducing, albeit in new forms, ancient wisdom, often combining with it examples of Arab-Persian culture. Both the Arabic-speaking Peripatetics and other authors who continued the ancient line in ethics did not limit themselves to following any one school, but most often combined Aristotelian, Platonic, Neoplatonic and Stoic motifs.
Approximately a century and a half before the start of the Arab conquests, the active spread of Aristotelianism began in the territories that later became part of the Arab caliphate, primarily in Iran. Later, starting from the 9th century. Almost all of Aristotle's works are translated into Arabic. His popularity among the educated circles of the Arab-Muslim state is evidenced by the honorary title “First Teacher” given to him. Among Aristotle's works is the Nicomachean Ethics, which was commented on by al-Farabi and Ibn Rushd and the translation of which had a decisive influence.
The emergence of a whole tradition of ethical philosophizing in the spirit of antiquity, combining Aristotelianism with Platonic psychology and Neoplatonic cosmology. The main source of perception of the latter was Aristotle's Theology, which contained a retelling of the last chapters of Plotinus' Enneads. The main dialogues of Plato, the texts of Alexander of Aphrodisias, Galen and other thinkers formed, together with the Aristotelian heritage, a solid basis for the existence of the “Greek” (as the Arabs put it) line in ethics.
§ 1. PERSONAL PERFECTION: CORRECTION OF MORALS AND ACQUISITION OF VIRTUES
The main focus of this tradition was the study of virtues (fadail) and vices (razilya, pl. razil). Virtue was understood, in accordance with Aristotelian teaching, as the “mean” between two vicious extremes. A certain systematization was achieved by highlighting the cardinal virtues in the spirit of antiquity, although such identification was not always consistent. Arab-Muslim authors demonstrate considerable wit and resourcefulness, describing all sorts of nuances of characters in their manifestations.
The first systematic exposition of this kind belongs to Yahya Ibn Adi (d. 974). Like subsequent works of this genre, it is called “Tahzib al-akhlyak” (“Correction of Morals”) and has the common feature with them that morals (predispositions-ahlyak) are understood as both inherent by nature (instincts) and acquired, and The goal of a person is to improve his morals, acquire praiseworthy character traits and get rid of blameworthy ones. In order to facilitate this task, a systematic presentation of morals is undertaken. Another common feature of works of this kind is the emphasized need for the primacy of reason (the rational part of the soul), which is the only one capable of calming the lower parts of the soul and delivering perfection to a person. Ibn Adi considers the source of evil to be the lower, lustful part of the soul, although the middle, angry part is also capable of causing the manifestation of negative qualities in a person. In addition to mind control, habit, and therefore the environment in which a person is raised from childhood, plays a large role in the development of commendable character traits. Unlike other authors of this trend, Ibn Adi does not systematize praiseworthy and negative qualities in accordance with the three parts of the soul, but gives a list of them, which in his case is quite close to those that are characteristic of those who stood out in Muslim ethics.
Miskaveikh, a famous philosopher and historian, owns “Tahzib al-akhlyak wa tathir al-ara” (“Correction of morals and purification of views”). The instructive and didactic nature of this work is clearly visible already in its title. It is not precisely established whether Miskaveikh was familiar with the work of the same name by Ibn Adi. In any case, the goal of man in his presentation is very close to that stated by his predecessor: to constantly acquire predispositions to correct actions. Miskaweih establishes, in agreement with Plato, the substantiality of the soul, its indestructibility and immortal character. Under By virtue, Miskaveich understands, following the Nicomachean Ethics, the perfection of the rational part of the soul, which should dominate over those parts of it that are associated with the body. At the same time, moving on to the classification of virtues, Miskaveich assigns each part (or ability, which for him) synonyms) of the soul a special virtue, which is more consistent with Platonism.The rational part of the soul corresponds to wisdom, the angry part corresponds to courage, and the lustful part corresponds to temperance. Justice, the fourth virtue, is a consequence of the harmony of these three. Each of the virtues is defined in the spirit of Aristotle as the mean between two extremes - vices. Along with justice (a separate treatise “Fi mahiyyat al-adl” - “On the essence of justice” is dedicated to it; justice is understood in the Aristotelian spirit as equality and exact proportion), Miskaveyh pays special attention to the study of friendship (sadaqah, mahabba). This concept should be compared with both Aristotelian philia and Platonic eros, although still more with the first than with the second. Friendship between people pursues the goal of achieving pleasure, benefit, benefit, or a combination of all three elements; The friendship of inanimate objects is based on mathematical proportions that ensure their harmonious combination. The highest of pleasures is associated with the mind, which is capable of experiencing, completely separate from the body, passionate love (ishk) for the First Principle, which is described by Miskaveih in the spirit of Neoplatonism. Purification of the rational substance from all bodily attachments and the achievement of perfection in knowledge makes it possible to unite (ittisal) with the world of the divine: then a person feels himself to be a microcosm, realizing in himself the forms of everything that exists and identical with the whole world. This is the highest happiness (saada) available to man.
The brilliant scientist, astronomer, philosopher Nasir ad-Din al-Tusi, known for his Ismaili sympathies (although, perhaps, he did not always express them regardless of the political situation), creates, in the likeness of Miskawaikh’s work, his own work on ethics in Persian, called “Akhlyak- and Nasi-ri" ("Nasir's ethics") after the name of the Ismaili ruler of Gulistan who patronized him. According to the author, the purpose of the work is to translate Miskaveih's "Correction of Morals" into Persian. At-Tusi distinguishes between absolute and relative good and identifies good with perfection. Aristotle, as well as his predecessors - Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, considered human happiness, according to at-Tusi, as the result of the development of four virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance and justice. These virtues relate exclusively to the soul and not to the body. Unlike his predecessor, al-Tusi includes home economics and politics in the sphere of ethical philosophizing. The ruler, according to al-Tusi, heads the hierarchy of perfection, receives divine inspiration and is a legislator; These theses clearly reflected al-Tusi’s Shia-Ismaili sympathies.
The most prominent promoter of the “philosophical way of life” - a kind of Socratic ideal - is Abu Bakr ar-Razi (d. ca. 925). Considering Plato the greatest philosopher, in “at-Tybb ar-ruhaniyy” (“Spiritual Healing”), his most famous work on ethics, he takes a Platonic position, affirming the tripartite division of the soul and speaking out with a sharp condemnation of hedonism. Al-Razi writes that Plato distinguished between the rational (divine), angry (animal) and lustful (vegetative) souls, of which the latter two were created for the sake of the first - the one that is the only one capable of ensuring the liberation of the soul from the power of the body. The goal of spiritual healing is, through evidence, to “align” (ta’dil) all three parts of the soul. Quite in agreement with Plato, ar-Razi defines pleasure as a “return to nature,” to harmony, the violation of which is suffering. Since this is so, the limitless pleasure is impossible, and hedonists strive to acquire what does not exist. The true goal of man should be to be guided by reason, and the true ideal is represented by the figure of the sage, who has acquired perfection in the art of apodictic proof (burhan) and in the main sciences - mathematics, physics and philosophy. The sage is invulnerable to sadness and care (gamm), because he understands the frailty of the world and is free from passions and attachments.
§ 2. POLITICAL UTOPIA: "VIRTURED CITY" AL-FARABI
Abu Nasr al-Farabi went down in the history of classical Arab-Muslim thought, among other things, as the most brilliant political philosopher who continued the line of antiquity. He is concerned not only with personal but also with social perfection, and his “virtuous city” (madina fadilya) is built on principles borrowed primarily from Platonism, although the Neoplatonic and Aristotelian elements in the construction of his teaching cannot be underestimated. Al-Farabi's political philosophy had little in common with the political theory in Arab-Muslim culture, which was focused on the realities of the Islamic state and represented primarily by the name of al-Mawardi (974-1058).
Al-Farabi’s commentary on the “Nicomachean Ethics” has been lost, and although some small works - “Fi takhsyl as-sa”ada” (“On finding happiness”), “at-Tanbih ala sabil as-sa”ada” (“Reminder of paths to happiness"), "Kitab al-Millah" ("Book of the Millah"), etc. give some idea of his views on personal perfection; nevertheless, the primary interest for al-Farabi is the structure of society in order to achieve maximum perfection of its citizens . The corresponding views were expressed by him in a number of small works, as well as in two significant works - ("Kitab ara" by ahl al-madina al-fadil) "Treatise on the views of the inhabitants of a virtuous city" and (al-Siyasa al-madaniyya) "Civil politics" , very similar in content.
Al-Farabi proceeds from the division of all sciences and the laws they establish into general ones, i.e. those studying the subject in general (kulliya), and specific ones, i.e. dealing with individual things (juz "iya). The whole-individual opposition sets an unambiguous gradation of sciences and corresponding activities: individual sciences depend on the whole, since they use the laws established in them. Political philosophy (falsafa madaniyya), or civil science (ilm ma-daniya) seeks out general laws and gives recommendations for their application in various specific cases. This science consists of two parts. One studies what true and false happiness is, what are the vices and virtues, and how virtue differs from non-virtue; the second - how they are distributed in human cities and what are the arts of government.
Al-Farabi considers true happiness to be achievable only in the afterlife. Happiness is good in its absolute understanding, and absolute good is absolute being. This is the property of the First Principle, understood in the Neoplatonic spirit, but often designated in Aristotelian terms as Effective Reason. The dichotomy of body and soul is very clearly stated by al-Farabi: the soul is tormented in a “prison” made up of four primary elements, and its only hope for liberation is wisdom (hikmah), i.e. true and complete knowledge, which will become the reason for the “unity” (it-tihad) of the soul with the metaphysical principles of the universe.
In addition to true happiness, there is inauthentic happiness. On the one hand, this is what people mistake for happiness, without having any idea about it. But on the other hand, this is a structure of earthly life that contributes to the achievement of true happiness. The fact is that everything that is useful for genuine happiness and good is also good and happiness, but not in itself, but because it serves this purpose. The goal of political philosophy is to establish what true happiness is, to strengthen virtues in people and their cities and to promote the performance of good deeds.
People cannot live alone, and the minimum level of unification at which a virtuous life is possible is a city (madina). In a city that is virtuous, a strict hierarchy must reign - similar to that which distinguishes the organization of sciences. Imam of the virtuous city, i.e. its head establishes the same true laws for everyone. The virtue of the city depends crucially on this act of original establishment, which is bestowed by revelation from above. That is why the “first” (i.e., the one who establishes the laws) imam must have the prophetic gift, in contrast to the “subsequent” imams who support and apply these laws. Al-Farabi lists twelve qualities that the first imam should possess; since their combination in one person is an extremely rare thing, he gives a shortened list of six qualities sufficient to maintain virtuous order in the city.
In revelation from above, what al-Farabi denotes by the term “milla” is given. He establishes an approximate synonymy between milla and din (religion), milla and shari "a (Law, Sharia), further identifying Sharia and sunnah. This understanding is revealed in the definition: milla is “measured” (muqaddara) views and actions stipulated by the charter , which the "first chapter" gives to all residents of the city. On the one hand, the influence of the Islamic concept of faith as an inextricable connection of knowledge and action is noticeable here, and this explains the fact that al-Farabi finds it possible to
It is reasonable to equate Mill with the concepts of “religion” and “Sharia/Sunnah”. On the other hand, those views that the inhabitants of a virtuous city should profess are certainly not related to the doctrinal content of Islam (although al-Farabi, as far as possible, establishes such parallels). The correct views are the inherently Neoplatonic concept of the Origin and structure of the metaphysical world and peripatetic natural philosophy. These views correctly orient a person, giving him an idea of true happiness. Right actions are those that lead to the achievement of such happiness; they are also virtuous, coupled with the corresponding predispositions (ahlyak) and the habitual way of acting (siyar).
Governance (siyasa) is the art, based on political philosophy, of properly distributing such actions and skills of people in a virtuous city, so that they contribute to the maintenance of their lives and, together with right views, guide the inhabitants of such a city to true happiness. Governance is divided into two parts: “introducing” (tamkin) such views and correct actions and “preserving” them (hifz).
The opposite of the virtuous are various categories of lost (dalla) cities, the list of which is formed as an enumeration of options for corruption or lack of correct knowledge and action, or one of these elements.
§ 3. INTUITIVISM: IBN SINA AND AS-SUKHRAVARDI
Abu Ali Ibn Sina adheres to views on happiness and goodness that are in many ways similar to those expressed by al-Farabi, and are predominantly of Neoplatonic origin. However, he develops them in a direction that is different from both the tradition of treatises on the “correction of morals” and from political utopia. Ibn Sina, of course, was not a Sufi, but the name “Tasawwuf” (Sufism), which bears one of the sections of his “al-Isharat wa-t-tanbihat” (“Directions and Instructions”), as well as the ironic remark of al-Ghazali in his “al-Munkiz min ad-dalal” (“Deliverance from delusion”), which claimed that Ibn Sina took everything valuable in his ethics from the Sufis - the facts are not completely unfounded. Avicenna's concept of clarity (ana'iya) has little in common with Aristotelian psychology (which, however, Ibn Sina did not deny), and the theory of intuitive grasp (hads) of the subject of knowledge can cause associations with Sufism.
Ibn Sina develops the concept of clarity, following the imperative of considering a thing as such, in itself, i.e. outside of its “connectedness” (ta’alluk) with something else. In metaphysics, the result of the development of the same position was the concept of selfhood (zat) of a thing, which, before its existence and non-existence (which are something external and incidental), is characterized by possibility or necessity , inalienable from herself. What is inseparable from the “person” himself, what in him does not depend on anything else, external or internal?
Answering this question, Ibn Sina poses a thought experiment, inviting the reader to do it after him. Imagine, he says, that your self (zat) has just been created; thus we are deprived of the clues of our past experience. Further, says Abu Ali, your self is spread out in pure “air” (we would say in a vacuum, if not for Ibn Sina’s denial of emptiness following Aristotle); This means that we do not receive any information from the outside. Moreover, says Ibn Sina, some members of your body do not feel others; This means that we don’t learn anything “from within” ourselves. What will such a “floating person”, deprived of all sources of sensory and mental comprehension, perceive, asks Ibn Sina? And he answers: nothing - except his “I” (ana).
“I” is primary and indestructible in man; it, Ibn Sina claims, is always revealed to him, moreover, it cannot be unmanifested. We comprehend our “I” without making any effort for this, but, moreover, we cannot help but comprehend it. Even a sleeping and drunk person, says Ibn Sina, always perceives his “I” at every given moment, and only later can he forget about it. “I” is comprehended instantly and completely adequately. “I” is absolutely simple and is grasped by the intuition (hads) of a person, which is not reducible to either sensory or rational knowledge.
A similar ability opens up a person’s ability to comprehend the Origin. It is not accessible to logical (rational) knowledge (since it has no gender), and even more so to sensory knowledge (since it is not connected with matter). Only that ability of comprehension in a person that gives him perfect manifestation of the object of knowledge, without the need for any “instruments” of knowledge and any intermediaries, can be adequate to the task of comprehending the First Principle. Its intuitive grasp brings a person absolute happiness and complete pleasure. However, only a few are capable of such a grasp - those who have a particularly “subtle” soul and who can free themselves from bodily attachments.
The allegorical narrative of the journey of human reality to the Origin is the subject of Avicenna's "Hayyah ibn Yaqzan". This small work gave rise, almost like Ibn Adi's Correction of Morals, to brilliant attempts at continuation. The work of the same name by Ibn Tufayl, “Hayy ibn Yaqzan”, is, in contrast to the miniature Avicenna parable, a large-scale literary work, a kind of “philosophical Robinsonade”, in which Hayy, growing on a desert island, gradually discovers in himself all the abilities of knowledge from the sensory to the logical , this hierarchy is crowned by the intuitive grasp of the Origin, which gives absolute knowledge and happiness. Much closer to the prototype in form of execution is “al-Gurba al-gharbiyya (In the trap of the West)” by al-Suhrawardi. This is not accidental, since Ibn Sina serves as an unconditional authority for al-Suhrawardi, the founder of Ishraqism (philosophy of insight).
Ishraqism in its early edition, presented by Shihab ad-Din Yahya al-Suhrawardi (1154-1191; not to be confused with its namesake and contemporary - the founder of the Suhrawardiyya order), represents an attempt at a systematic monistic presentation of philosophical teachings built on the foundation of the classical Persian Zoroastrian heritage. Filled with philosophical content, “light” and “darkness” are transformed by al-Suhrawardi into fundamental philosophical categories, on which he consistently relies in resolving the main philosophical problems of his time. The philosophy of early Ishraqism is original and contains a number of significant innovations, but this has little to do with the sphere of ethics. Here the dualism of soul and body, so characteristic of the “Greek” line in ethics, coincides as organically as possible with the dualism of light and darkness. The soul in al-Suhrawardi’s view is pure (metaphysical) light, caught in the shackles of dead material bodies that darken or do not allow light to pass through at all. Since light is absolutely simple and, therefore, substantially one, the difference between the Light of Lights (First Principle) and the human soul is the difference in the intensity (shiddah) of light, i.e. the difference is quantitative, not qualitative. The substantial unity of light constitutes the basis for the conclusion that human clarity is capable, if it overcomes the light-obscuring resistance of material bodies, to return to its ancestral home and reunite with the world of light. Intuition (hads), the possession of which makes a person “divine” (muta’allih), capable of such ascension
Nyu into the world of light is an independent ability of comprehension and cannot be developed from a sensory or rational beginning. A person has (or does not have) it as a gift, and to someone who is deprived of it, describing it is as useless as explaining the difference between colors to a blind person. Those who have this gift should strive to escape from the “trap” of the material world, where they are alienated from their true location, and ascend to the heavenly world.
LITERATURE
Lyrics
Koran
Koran / Transl. E.S. Sablukova.
Koran / Transl. I.Yu. Krachkovsky.
Sunnah
A short collection of hadiths. Sahih al-Bukhari / Trans. Abdullah (Vladimir) Nirsch. b.m., b.g.
An-Nawawi. Gardens of the Righteous (from the words of the lord of the messengers) / Trans. from Arabic V.M. Nirsha. M., 2001.
Collections of translations
Grigoryan S.N. From the history of philosophy of Central Asia and Iran VII-XII centuries. M., 1960.
Selected works of thinkers from the countries of the Near and Middle East IX-XIVbb. M., 1961.
Al-Ghazali A.H. Resurrection of the Sciences of Faith. Correct scales / Transl. from Arabic, research. and comment. V.V. Naumkina. M., 1980.
Ibn Arpbi. [Instructions to the seeker of God.] Meccan revelations / Introduction, trans. with Arabic, and comment. A.V. Smirnova. // Medieval Arabic philosophy: problems and solutions. M., 1998.
Ibn Arabi. 1emma of wisdom // Smirnov A.V. The Great Sheikh of Sufism (experience of paradigmatic analysis of the philosophy of Ibn Arabi). M., 1993.
Ibn. Synp. Favorite philosopher, producer M., 1980.
Ibn Sinp. Treatise on Haya, son of Yakzan // Sagadeev A.V. Ibn Sina. 1st ed. M., 1980.
Ibn Tufail. The Tale of Haya ibn Yaqzan / Trans. from Arabic I.P. Kuzmina. M., 1978.
Al-Kirmani, Khpmid pd-Din. Calming the mind / Introduction, trans., commentary. A.V. Smirnova. M., 1995.
Miskaweih. Treatise on the nature of justice / Trans. and comment. Z.I. Guseinova // Historical and philosophical yearbook. 1998. M., 2000.
Al-Farabi. Social and ethical treatises. Alma-Ata, 1973.
Encyclopedic articles
Articles on Muslim ethics in the encyclopedic dictionary "Ethics" (Moscow, 2001) (see index; articles and other materials are available at langlO33 http://iph.ras.ru/-orient/win/staff/smirnov.php)
Research
Medieval Arabic philosophy: problems and solutions. M., 1998.
Ignatenko A.A. How to live and rule. M., 1994.
Ignatenko A.A. In search of happiness. M., 1989.
Ignatenko A.A. Problems of ethics in the “prince’s mirrors” // God-man-society in the traditional cultures of the East. M., 1993.
Smirnov A.V. Moral nature of man: Arab-Muslim tradition // Ethical thought: Yearbook. M., 2000.
Fakhry M. Ethical Theories in Islam. Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1991.
Howard G.F. Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics. Cambridge, 1985.
Ethics in Islam (Giorgio Levi Delia Vida conferences, Ninth conference, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian). Malibu, California, 1985.
Quasem M. The Ethics of al-Ghazali. A Composite Ethics in Islam. Delmar, N.Y., 1978.
The ethics of honoring a spiritual mentor. Entry into tariqa (Sufi path) under the guidance of a true sheikh-mentor, performing special tasks (wird, wazifa) and other tasks (some assignments) assigned to him, is mandatory for every Muslim. Special tasks include: repeating words of repentance, reading salawat and dhikr a certain number of times, reading certain prayers, reading the Koran, performing additional prayers. It is also necessary to carry out his other instructions, which may take place in different situations, such as helping those in need or doing some useful work and any other instructions and recommendations. For they do not do any errands in vain, and in the fulfillment of their errands there is always great grace. This is the responsibility of both men and women, learned and ignorant, rulers and ordinary people, old and young. Many verses of the Koran, hadiths of the Prophet and sayings of the imams of all four madhhabs prove the obligation to enter the path of knowledge of Allah - the Sufi path (tariqa), to receive the patronage of a Sufi sheikh. To obtain evidence, you can refer to the reliable books of great scientists such as Imam al-Ghazali, Imam an-Nawawi, Ibn al-Hajar, Sha'rani, as well as the books of Russian scientists such as Muhammad Zakir al-Chistavi, Zainullah al-Sharifi, Saifullah -kadi, Jamaluddin from Kumukh, Hasan-afandi, Said-afandi and others.
The statement that it is not necessary to join a tariqa and follow a spiritual mentor, i.e., an ustaz, is absolutely incorrect, and even more so that one cannot join a tariqa. For everyone knows that Allah created man in need of another man. Except in exceptional cases, he cannot independently find the right path and passes it safely. And in this case, he does not do this himself, but the Almighty guides him, and such people are few out of millions. It is absurd to wait until Allah himself guides you, but you must obey His command to enter the tariqa and find the path of Truth. And if you think that Allah has already directed you along the path of truth and you are on the right path, then this is proof that you are on the path of Satan, for only the lost are confident in themselves. From the day of birth, a child needs parents, then, wherever he studies, he needs a teacher, for example, someone who wants to acquire a profession needs an experienced specialist in this field - a mentor, a student needs a scientist-teacher, someone who sets out on a journey needs escorted, etc.
Even our prophet Muhammad* had a mentor in the person of the angel Gabriel. The Almighty, of course, could have directed him himself, but He gave him a teacher, Dzhabrail, to be an example for us. If we set out on the most difficult, long and important path, the path of getting closer to Allah, how short-sighted a person must be who claims that on this path we do not need a mentor or guide, but on the rest we do. Would a reasonable person argue that if a doctor is needed to treat the body, but to treat spiritual illnesses of the soul, such a doctor is not needed? A Sufi sheikh is a scientist who accurately shows the path to Allah Almighty, and a doctor who treats spiritual illnesses and thereby cleanses our hearts, without which we have no well-being in eternal life. Today a Muslim has more spiritual illnesses than before and therefore needs a true sheikh more and therefore must come under his protection.
Neither numerous sins, nor the consumption of alcohol, nor bad sinful habits of a person should become a reason for refusing to enter under the upbringing of a sheikh. The more sins, the sooner we need to go to a Sufi sheikh who will help us get rid of them. This is similar to how a sick person needs to see a doctor as soon as possible. Some are afraid to go to the sheikh, fearing that they will not be able to consistently and constantly fulfill the sheikh’s task. In vain. If for some reason he misses completing the task, then there is no sin; one must boldly go to the sheikh and enter the path of tariqah and try to fulfill all the instructions of the mentor, observing the norms of etiquette (adab). Allah and the grace of the Sheikh will help you complete the task.
Some are in no hurry to go to the sheikh because they think that if they enter the path of tariqa, they will have to give up the blessings of life and rest, give up work, family, science and other worldly affairs and all the time retire in remembrance of Allah. It is not difficult to guess that this is also a fallacy. A person who has taken the path of tariqah, like everyone else, has the right to engage in so-called worldly affairs within the limits permitted by Islam, and then all this will be worship with the right intention and there is no need to give up all activities. There are also people who doubt the truth of the ustaz because of the sinful behavior of its murids. And that's wrong. For sheikhs are not obliged to protect their murids from sin; they will not be able to do this, for only prophets are protected from sins. Even the sheikhs themselves are not protected from sin; they only sincerely repent if they accidentally fall into sin. After being in Islam, there is no greater happiness and mercy for a Muslim than to be under the tutelage of a true sheikh mentor. The opportunity to join the tariqa is a great blessing of the Almighty.
Next, based on the books of great scholars and righteous sheikhs, we will explain some ethical standards that must be observed by a murid. Without observing adabs, the murid does not receive the benefit of joining the tariqa and completing the tasks of the sheikh-mentor. And the most important thing for a murid is to have a conscious conviction that his spiritual mentor is the deputy of the Prophet * and the true favorite of Allah, wali. Murid must be sure that his mentor is the most necessary person on earth for him today. However, one should not think that sheikhs, like prophets, are protected from all sins. Although they are protected from them to a certain extent, they can rarely sin and they will definitely repent, and this has its own certain wisdom.
As you know, in religion, compliance not only with mandatory instructions, but also with desirable and recommended ones is of great importance. As we said above, Sufis are those Muslims who scrupulously observe the precepts of religion. But, as a rule, many Muslims formally follow the instructions and do not pay due attention to observing ethical standards (adab). It is precisely such moments that Sufis pay attention to. Sufis say: “A person will not become a true murid until he considers it obligatory for himself to follow the desired instructions (sunna).” That is, until he performs the sunnah as carefully and without skipping as the fard. Also, Sufis, based on the hadiths of the Prophet*, say: “A person will achieve some degree before the Almighty thanks to the observance of adab, and his degree before the Almighty will decrease only due to non-observance of adab.”
Many murids do not pay due attention to observing adab. And since neglect of Allah, even in small things, can cause great damage to the spiritual component of a person. Sufi theologians pay great attention to ethical standards of behavior and have compiled many books on this issue. A very valuable work in this area is the book of the famous Sufi Sheikh Hasan-Afandi from Kakhib “Khulasat al-Adab”, in which all the important issues regarding adab in the tariqa are revealed in detail.
The Almighty made adab a means of knowing and approaching Him and a way of receiving divine light (faiza) through people whom He bestowed with his care and attention - they are Sufi sheikhs-mentors. And receiving faiz is a necessary condition for purifying the heart. He deprived those who did not observe adab of knowing Himself, imposing on them the stamp of deprivation and delusion.
In the above-mentioned book, Hasan Afandi writes: “Since Sufism is entirely adab and no one achieves the goal without observing it, and the majority of followers of the tariqa do not know about observing adab even in general terms, not to mention the details, then our great sheikh Abdurrahman Haji al-'Asawi (q.s.) constantly commanded me to properly teach the murids adab."
In his book “Mawakif al-Sadat”, the great Sheikh Saifullah Qadi writes: “I bequeath to you, dear brothers, do not contradict the people of the tariqa, observe adab. Know that just by entering the path of tariqa your heart will not open, but only by observing adab in relation to the sheikhs... Our sheikh Abdul Aziz Bukhari said: “Our mentor Khawaja Bahauddin al-Naqshbandi said that whoever wants to be with us should observe three conditions (adab).
First, if they see a good deed in themselves, let them not be proud of it, but show even more modesty and humiliation, fearing the wrath of Allah.
Secondly, if he commits any bad deed, sin, let him not despair, remembering the great mercy of Allah.
Third, when the ustaz commands you to do something, you must immediately and with enthusiasm try to do everything perfectly, fearing that leniency towards the commands of the sheikh may deprive them of grace.”
Adab must be observed in relation to everything: both animals and humans. The more you observe adab, the better, this is the command of Allah. Based on this, adab murid in relation to Allah, the Messenger * and his heirs - the Sufi sheikhs, is obligatory...”
A person who has no vices, that is, has a pure soul and who strictly observes all Sharia norms, does not need a mentor. For a mentor is needed to cleanse the spiritual heart, and his heart is pure.
Sheikhs are like gutters through which the light of the knowledge of Allah flows (fayz) coming from the Prophet. A heart that does not receive fayz is not purified, just as a field sown without moisture does not sprout. Fayz does not flow into the heart of a person who does not have a mentor, just as water does not flow onto a person who does not stand under a gutter. Dhikr performed without the instructions of the sheikh does not carry nur in itself, and besides, Satan interferes with it. In numerous books of imams [tariqa] it is said that the teacher of one who does not have a sheikh is Satan.
To overcome obstacles that distance you from Allah Almighty, there is nothing that replaces the remembrance of Allah, which the sheikh teaches. It can be called a cure for all the vices of the soul and doubts instilled in us by Satan.
The reason for non-compliance with all the norms of Islam is heart disease, without getting rid of which faith cannot be genuine and complete. And therefore, a mentor is necessary, first of all, to cure these diseases, so that thanks to his treatment the soul can be cleansed. The more you remember Allah (dhikr), the more your love for Him increases and you try to do what the Almighty commands. And whoever does not love Allah does not follow the path of truth. Following this path is predetermined by the presence of a spiritual teacher (ustaz), whose heart and service are pure, who is perfect in Sharia and Tariqa. Sharia and tariqa are similar to the soul and body. If an action lacks one of them, then it is not considered a good action. This is stated in numerous reliable books. For anyone who rejects what is said, there is a great danger of dying in unbelief. Try to study adab, because without observing it it is impossible to obtain fayz, which is necessary for our salvation.
To receive fayza through awliya’, three conditions must be met:
– sincerity (ikhlas);
– observance of etiquette (adab);
– and most importantly – love for them.
One who lacks sincerity and does not observe adab will not bow down to the heart of the mentor, and therefore he will not receive fayz that comes only from the heart of the sheikh. Therefore, in order to gain the favor of the murshid, one must try to be sincere and observe adab. Whoever sincerely loves the sheikh, and his soul will become as pure as the soul of the sheikh. If there is true love for the mentor, then there will undoubtedly be adab and sincerity.
This is what Saifullah Qadi says about adabs for entering the tariqa: “Know, my dear, may your blessings be preserved. The Almighty, when He wants to endow His servant with happiness and guide him on the path of truth, then with His wisdom He instills inspiration in the heart of this servant, and thanks to this he will begin to seek the path of salvation. Such a desire of a slave is the most painful for the shaitan, therefore the shaitan constantly tries to change his desire for the true path until the special gaze of the ustaz, who has achieved perfection, descends on him. (Murshid Kamil), for this gaze, at the command of Allah, burns the shaitan. As the Almighty said:
Arab
Meaning: “By such examples many hypocrites are mistaken, denying them, and many true believers are guided to the right path, but only the disobedient (fasyks) are mistaken” (Surah al-Baqarah, verse 26).
Therefore, anyone who wishes to embark on this path and wants to achieve the desired goal in order to meet his Lord and become one of the slaves who have fulfilled his duty in worship before the Almighty, is obliged to heed what I will now say: “First of all, it is necessary to know everything conditions and mandatory components of the tariqa, which include:
1. Having a true belief according to the creed of al-Ashari or Maturidi and following one of the four madhhabs and strictly adhering to these frameworks...in the strictest manner.
2. Having a sheikh-mentor...we are obliged to strictly observe adab everywhere and always: being in solitude and among people, both at home and on the street
3. It is forbidden to object to the ustaz in anything... objection and dissatisfaction with the sheikhs, even in small things, deprives the murid of his God-given state (hal). May he warn us against such things. It's not the sheikh's fault here, but yours. The obstacle that appeared due to the revival of one’s ustaz cannot be removed; it blocks, that is, it completely blocks the path through which the divine light (fayz) comes to the murid. Stay away from this as much as possible.
4. Reveal to your ustaz all your thoughts that are lodged in your heart, both good and bad. The sheikh is your doctor, who treats heart diseases, cleanses your soul. He makes tawajuh to treat heart disease. You cannot speak, let him know about my thoughts through his ability of inner vision (kashf-karamat). Kashf is changeable, for he can make mistakes for the benefit of the sheikh, so that he does not rely on him. This is a divine grace that cannot be understood from stories, but only from one’s own experience. According to what we learned from kashf, if it is completely inconsistent with Shariah, a decision is not made, even if it is the absolute truth. Don’t forget about this, this is very valuable information, many people stumble on it.
5. It is necessary to maintain sincerity and sincerity in your endeavor. Love and respect for the Sheikh should not be diminished by trials and tribulations. The murid must love the ustaz more than himself and his children and be convinced that his main goal, i.e. he can achieve the pleasure of Allah only through the mediation of ustaz.
6. You cannot follow the actions of the sheikh in his ordinary affairs, because they may contain some kind of wisdom or he may do this for the purpose of testing the murids. To follow him in anything without his approval is a deadly poison. One must do not what he does, but what he commands to do.
7. Carry out his commands quickly and without delay. Our own interpretation of the meaning of his commands and their postponement is the most dangerous of the obstacles on the way to our goal.
8. Strictly carry out the tasks and wirds of the sheikh exactly as he taught you, without the slightest deviation. His insight is higher than ours, and therefore we must do what he said.
9. You must see yourself as lower and worse than everyone else, no matter what.
10. Do not be treacherous towards the sheikh. Spend your time as he commanded. In all his tasks, be strict, carry them out as he said, in purity and perfection.
11. Have no other goal, either in worldly or in akhirat blessings, other than getting closer to Allah, the only, self-sufficient and eternal. Before the sheikh, the murid should be like a dead person before the one who washes him. He flips it in any direction. You cannot object to the words of the sheikh, even if in some case the myrid himself is right. He must see the sheikh's mistake higher than his truth. If the Sheikh asks him anything, the answer should be clear and concise.
12. Be a follower of the sheikh and leave all decisions to him, respecting and exalting your ustaz, his successors (khulafa), as well as him and their murids, even if you have more knowledge than them.
13. You cannot tell about your goal to anyone except the ustaz, and if he is far away and there is no way to contact him, then you must turn to other pious and God-fearing people.
14. You cannot be angry with anyone. Anger extinguishes the nur of dhikr. You cannot argue and conflict with people of science; this leads to forgetfulness and confuses the heart. If you have hurt the heart of one of the people, offended him with your anger, word or deed, you need to sincerely repent and ask for forgiveness, even if you were right in this matter. You cannot look at people with a demeaning look, accept everyone you meet, Abdul-Abbas Khidra (a.s.) or any other great wali of Allah, knowing that he can indeed be one of the great awliyas. Also ask everyone to read dua for you.
15. Salik must be aware of his weakness, weakness and impotence. Know that you will not achieve your goal without the Sheikh’s satisfaction and that all paths are closed except the Sheikh’s path. The murid must be convinced that he will receive such great benefit from the sheikh that he would not have received worship for 1000 years. Think, dear, about this great matter.”
Before entering the Naqshbandi path, the murid must know that on this path he will encounter many difficulties, he will have to do what the nafs does not like. Anyone who has embarked on this path, in addition to the above, as Saifullah Qadi writes, must observe the following adabs:
1. Have a firm conviction that the sheikh is right and that without him the goal cannot be achieved. Completely rely on the sheikh, entrusting yourself to him... Even if you lose all the benefits and wealth for the sake of the sheikh, you should be satisfied, considering it a blessing, rejoicing that you spent it all for him. This determines the purity of your love for the sheikh.
2. To be deprived of your rights before the rights of the sheikh, for it is known that the choice of the sheikh is the choice of Allah.
3. Move away from what the sheikh does not like, to the best of your ability. You cannot consider his good attitude towards you the result of your good behavior, for this is a deadly poison, from which most murids suffer.
4. Don't ask him to interpret your dreams. If anyone asks him a question, then do not answer it in the presence of the Sheikh.
6. Know the time when you can talk to him. Don't talk to the sheikh when he is not talking to you. And when communicating with him, observe adab and say only what is necessary and with sincerity.
7. You cannot reveal the secrets of the sheikh.
8. You cannot expect the sheikh to treat you with respect. This gives us nothing, because he treats disobedient people with respect.
9. You cannot talk about your God-given states (hal) and kashf-karamats, if any, except to your sheikh, for nothing can be hidden from him. You cannot tell people everything that the Sheikh told you, because they may misunderstand it and will object because of it. And this could get them into trouble.
10. Salam should not be conveyed to ustaz from others except with the heart. And if the sheikh asks about it, then it’s possible.
11. It is indecent to perform ablution, spit, or perform sunnah prayers in front of a sheikh. You cannot stay near him for a long time and eat food with him. And if there is a command from the sheikh for this, then it is possible and even necessary.
12. Next we will talk about adabs, which are decorations for murids. Anyone whom Allah helps and guides on the right path will observe all adabs. As mentioned above, these include: constantly being in ablution, observing its desired actions, as well as following other sunnahs, showing diligence in performing prayers with the team, reviving the worship of Allah in the time between evening and night prayers, performing the dhikr assigned by the sheikh between afternoon and evening prayers. These adabs are the most important. The murid is obliged to constantly pay attention to his actions and reprimand them before he is reprimanded, to be upset by bad deeds, to constantly update the tawbah and ask for forgiveness from the Almighty. If the deed committed is good, then thank Allah for it and look at it as a sinful act. For we have many omissions in it, which is a sin before Allah...
Now let’s talk about adabs in relation to brothers in faith. These include:
1. Not paying attention to the shortcomings of murids and other people, no matter how obvious they may be. If you notice a mistake or mistake on their part, you must hide it, and you must not advertise it in any way, because this can bring disaster upon yourself. If a murid learns about people’s shortcomings and does not try to find excuses for them, then his soul will be destroyed and nothing will help him.
2. It is necessary to share with others your blessings received from Allah, even if it is just one carrot.
3. Lack of desire to become an imam in prayer, but to give preference to another, seeing him higher than himself.
4. A reminder to the murid brothers about performing good deeds at special times: early in the morning, on Friday night, in the evening and at other valuable hours. Even if you yourself have done more good deeds than others, you must do less of your own.
5. You cannot treat anyone with disrespect, neither the sheikh nor the murid. This happens when we, moving away from the upbringing of a sheikh, run after worldly goods, being carried away by the delights of this world, looking for luxury in food and clothing.
6. You cannot allow yourself laxity and laziness, because because of this you will not be able to help the murids and fulfill their needs.
7. We must not forget caring for those weak and sick people who have no friends and helpers to look after them.
8. If there are disagreements between the murids, we must hasten to reconcile them, calling on them to forgive the mistakes of their brothers.
9. Do not be careless, visit a fellow believer, and if necessary, help him in word and deed, morally and financially.
10. Do not forget to make dua to your brothers in faith for the forgiveness of their sins, Allah’s pleasure and condescension towards them, especially during prostration in Tahajjud prayer, so that the Almighty will say: “Everything you ask for your brother will be done for you.”
11. Do not speak about your brother in faith except well, especially be careful in times of anger. try to serve your brothers by helping them in need, for this is more valuable to us than other desirable good deeds.
12. It is advisable to have at home knives, scissors, a needle, thread, an awl and other tools that the muridis may need, so that they do not have to ask others for it. Thus, we must help preserve the honor and dignity of the murids. It is also necessary to hurry to repent and ask for forgiveness from them for omissions in adab, especially in relation to the sheikh. In general, observe adab in relation to your ustaz in any way so that it corresponds to the ethical requirements of the given time and place and the customs of the people of the era in which you live.
If a person has a true belief and recognizes true Sufism, he will be on the right path, even if he has not found or entered under the education of a true sheikh-mentor. Such a believer has a chance to be saved from a bad end. If he has not yet found a mentor, he should try to follow the Koran and Hadith to the best of his ability, strictly follow the pious Ulama and what is written in their reliable books, admitting his weakness and asking Allah for forgiveness for this. Persistently and with huzur read salawat, dhikr, as if you were sitting in front of the Prophet*.
Next, we will talk about those adabs that we should observe after we have intended to join the tariqa or have already entered, as stated in the book of the famous Sufi shehai and successor of Saifullah Qadi - Hasan Afandi, “Khulasat al-adab”. Those who have entered the tariqa must observe eight adabs: adab of intention, adab of spiritual connection with the sheikh (rabita), adab in the presence of the sheikh, adab when talking with the sheikh, adab of serving the sheikh, adab of performing the tasks of the sheikh, adab of visiting (ziyarat), adab when participating in khatma meetings, adab of preparing the heart to receive faiz, adab of diligent worship in solitude (halvat)
Adab intentions. Sincerity in intention is the basis of religion, for action without intention is like a house without a foundation. In other words, in order for any of our actions performed in accordance with the command of Allah to become worship of Allah (ibadat) - which is what Sharia requires of us - intention (niyat) is necessary. Receiving reward from actions primarily depends on intention. A believer's pure intentions are better than his deeds. For if a person intended to do a good deed but could not, although he wanted to, then for this Allah gives him reward as if he had committed this deed. And in addition, he has nothing to be proud of, because he did nothing for others. But a perfect deed can become spoiled if we become proud of it (riya) or become complacent (ujbu), and this happens very often among us.
Anyone who intends to serve the Almighty will receive a reward for this and will come closer to Him. If the intention contains any other goals and desires, then, on the contrary, the person will move away from Allah. Service done without sincerity (ikhlas), like a body without a soul. Therefore, when going to the sheikh, you must have the intention of going to him only for the sake of Allah, for the sake of His pleasure, fulfilling your duty before God.
You cannot set yourself the goal of joining the tariqa and visiting the sheikh to achieve benefits in this or the other world and even obtain special spiritual states (hal) and one cannot even have the intention of getting closer to Allah, becoming holy (get out). There should be no intention of going to Heaven or being freed from the fire of Hell. Although we may get all this for it, it should not be an end in itself. The intention should be only to obey Allah, who commands it. Remove everything from your heart so that your goal is only Allah, unlike anything else.
When you go to the sheikh, you need to go as if you have neither knowledge nor good deeds, otherwise you will be left without faiz. Fayz is received only by those who, observing adab, behave in need, and do not rely on their knowledge and deeds.
Beware of the intention of testing the Sheikh. Whoever comes to him to test him will be cursed by Allah. Do not aim to see kashfu-karamat from him either, since the latter is not a necessary condition for sheikhs. On the contrary, those who do not own karamas may be even closer to the Almighty and higher in degree. Many Companions did not own it. And it also happens that sheikhs, although possessing karamat, nevertheless do not have the right to show it, or, having the right to do so, do not show it if they do not see any benefit in it.
Sheikhs, with every inhalation and exhalation, are busy only with fulfilling the commands of their Lord, and they have neither the desire nor the time to do anything else, to learn some secrets. Moreover, knowledge of secrets is an attribute of Allah, and a perfect wali does not claim them in any way and does not strive for it. In the book "al-Bahjat al-saniyya"(p. 56) it is also noted that Sufis say: “Most of the murids fall away [from the tariqa], being carried away by karamat, not understanding that the greatest karamat is observing the purest Sharia and following the clear and pure Sunnah, i.e. Istiqama.
The book “Lawakih al-anwar al-qudsiyya” says: “I heard that my master (sayyid) Afzaluddin (q.s.) said: “You do not visit a righteous person or alim without breaking your mental rejection of them, so that their anger does not overtake you. How many people came to the Ulama and righteous people with faith in their hearts and left them as unbelievers. Therefore, you should check your intention properly before going to them, and if you are not sincere, then return without going to them.”
In the same book on page 78 it says: “I heard that my lord (sayyid)‘Abdulhalim ibn Muslih (q.s.) said: “Not a single person came to ziyarat to an alim or a righteous person in order to gain true knowledge or improve moral qualities without receiving more than he hoped to gain. And not a single person came out with the intention of denying or criticizing them, without returning with grave sins.” Know that the word “ziyarat” means “inclination”, “sympathy”. They say that if someone visits another, then he has a feeling of sympathy for him, and the condition for having sympathy and inclination for a person is to leave his shortcomings unnoticed. It has come to our attention that when the Salafun were going to visit a religious scholar or a righteous person, they gave alms with the intention that Allah would give them the opportunity not to notice the shortcomings of the person being visited, so as not to return from him without benefiting. In the event that the visitor is not one of those from whom benefit can be obtained, Allah on his behalf gives benefit to the visitor because of the sincerity of the latter’s intention.”
Adab rabits. The meaning of a full-fledged rabita lies in the concentrated presentation of the murshid in front of you and the direction of the gaze of your inner vision to the bridge of his nose in order to receive the faiz located there. You should imagine that fayz from the sheikh’s heart goes to the bridge of his nose and from there to the bridge of your nose and further to the heart. Stay in this state until there is nothing left in you except the thought of Allah and the influence of attraction towards Him... Your goal is Allah, and rabita is a means of getting closer to Him. Proof of the need for rabita is the following verse of the Quran:
و ابتغوا اليه الوسيله [Meaning]: “Seek means and ways of getting closer to Allah.”
And rabita is the best of all means of approaching the Almighty. It is even an independent path to knowing Allah. Even by performing a large amount of dhikr without rabita, it is impossible to achieve the knowledge of Allah. And it is possible to know Allah even without dhikr, by doing only rabita. It is also said a lot that the most important adab of dhikr is being in a state of rabita, this is confirmed by the Sunnah. For clarification, you can consult books "Nur al-hidaya" And "Tabsirat al-fasilin".
Adabs, visits to the sheikh. When preparing to go to the sheikh, the murid should perform a complete ablution, wear new or clean clothes, and apply incense. And if it is not possible to swim, then fully perform partial ablution. After this, he must repent by saying the repentance formula “استعفر الله” 15 or more times, then he must read the suras "al-Fatiha" And "al-Ikhlas" and reward (sawab) for this, give it to the murshid on whom the rabita is performed as a gift.
On the way to him, one should be in a state of rabita and search for faiz and go to him with sincerity and love in order to receive his grace. On the way to the sheikh, you need to imagine that your guide is the sheikh for whom you are doing rabita at this time. And if he is not yet a murid, then he can simply read salawat, dhikr and be afraid that the sheikh will not accept him. And the sheikh, as you know, accepts with his heart, and everyone needs to be afraid, both those who are for the first time and those who are already a murid.
Wherever your ustaz is, be sure that his gaze always accompanies you, for for Ravkhani there are no barriers, either temporal or spatial. As soon as the murid remembers the ustaz, his ravhani immediately appears next to him, even she is always with the true murids, it is not necessary to see him with her eyes. If the sheikh's gaze leaves him even for a moment, then he will not be a true murid.
On this issue, one of the great Sufis said: “If the Prophet (PBUH) hides from us even for a moment, we will not even consider ourselves Muslims” ( "al-Khalidiya").
Adab in the presence of the Sheikh. To receive divine light (fayza) and grace (barakat) from the sheikh, there are obvious and hidden adabs that should be observed in the presence of the ustaz.
Explicit adab. Do not look directly at the sheikh's face, but only furtively. Stand before him humbly, head down, as if you were a runaway slave returned to his owner. Don't sit down and talk without his permission, but you can ask about things that are unclear and things that would benefit him. You can say what should be said according to Sharia. Don't say what the Sheikh doesn't like to say.
While with your mentor, do not talk to anyone, even to another sheikh of higher rank. Do not address anyone or look at anyone; Be like a lover near your beloved. Respect and deep love for the sheikh is deep love for Allah and His exaltation. Be close to him, in complete silence, with your eyes closed, humbly turning your heart towards the heart of the sheikh in order to receive his grace. Be sure that in front of you is the deputy of the Prophet (alayhi ssalatu wa sallam) and therefore behave around him as you would behave around the Prophet (alaihi ssalatu wa sallam). It is unethical to ask him questions out of curiosity, if you need him to give you the necessary instructions without asking questions. For their contemporaries, sheikhs and religious scholars are like prophets for their community (ummah). Here we mean those ulama who have reached the level of knowledge of Allah and behave according to their knowledge, not those who have simply studied and know the precepts of religion. True Ulama renounce everything forbidden and strictly carry out the commands of Allah, fearing His wrath.
Hidden adabs. Do not go to the sheikh, forgetting about Allah, with thoughts about worldly concerns. It's very bad if you have a bad opinion of people. It is unacceptable that you have a bad opinion about the sheikh, you cannot object to him, deny him or have the intention of testing him, or harbor hatred towards him, otherwise his heart will close to you and you will lose the sight of the Almighty. It will be better for you to fall from the seventh heaven than to be rejected by the heart of your murshid. Direct your strength to the mental remembrance of Allah, be in a state of rabita and striving to receive grace. Approach your mentor with love, humility and respect and expect tawajuh from him.
The whole world is filled with Faiz Murshid. If you strive to receive it with conviction and a prepared heart, you will definitely receive it, not necessarily feel it. Anyone who is confident in receiving faiz will not be deprived of it. Any talk, even about worldly things, will not harm the sheikh and will not spoil his huzur, so in his presence, try to be in huzur, mentally directing your gaze to your heart. In the book "Maktubat" Imam Rabbani says that even listening and seeing the sheikh is medicine for the soul. After asking permission, leave without delay.
While observing the obvious adabs, do not ignore the hidden ones, otherwise you will not receive the fayz coming from the heart of the sheikh. To those murids who understand and desire only the obvious, the murshid gives the obvious, and to those who understand that the hidden is better for them, it is to them that he gives the hidden. Don't ask how you will receive grace from him if he doesn't even talk to you. Receiving grace does not depend on communication. Do not doubt that in the heart of a murshid there is a place for both the Almighty and all murids at once. All murids are in the heart of a murshid, like grains in the palm of your hand. He sees the obedient one with his face turned towards him, and the disobedient one with his back to him. Be sincere towards him and do not open your heart to anyone else, and be sure that without him you will not get closer to the Almighty. Be properly afraid of him and do not lose hope, have a good opinion of him and hope for his help. Put your murshid above yourself, your children and everything that is dear to you. His contentment with you is true happiness for you, and rejection by him is a great misfortune. Put him even higher than his sheikh. If he does not accept you, then all the sheikhs will turn away from you, right up to the Prophet himself (PBUH), and then Allah will reject you.
Al-Sha'rani in the book "al-Minan" said: “There has never been a case where anyone achieved a goal or succeeded after he was not accepted by the sheikh-mentor, or even more so by the Prophet*. Because they never drive away someone who has even the slightest chance of achieving salvation and success.” Volume 1, page 182.
Know that they drive away or accept only with the heart, and not with the tongue, and this happens for a reason that they know. We don't need to know this reason. Therefore, it is important for those entering the tariqa to understand these principles. May Allah help us with this!
The satisfaction of a murshid is the pleasure of Allah, and rejection by him is rejection by the Almighty. Whether you are near him or far from him, beware of his wrath. After all, all the actions and thoughts of the murids are no secret to him, although he does not talk about them. He talks about them only when there is benefit. Reliable books say that a true sheikh knows the state of his murids located in the west when he himself is in the east. Do not be deceived by his outwardly hospitable, friendly attitude; on the contrary, an outwardly inhospitable attitude is better for you, and that is when you will receive grace. Those whom he treats with kindness only outwardly are deprived of grace (barakat). Do only what the Sheikh calls for.
If he shows you special respect, then you should be especially afraid, this is a deadly poison for you. And if he puts you down and you think that you deserve even more, then rejoice, it is through this that you can receive grace. Murshid can test you in different ways, so do not rush to deny his actions. If you have bad thoughts about him or objections, repent immediately before disaster befalls you. From an objection to the sheikh, a veil appears on the murid’s heart, which closes the channels through which the fayz arrives. The owners of true kashfu claim that those who objected to the sheikhs die in unbelief.
If you notice any act of the sheikh that, in your opinion, is contrary to Sharia, then remember what happened to
How can this not happen when you don’t fuck the prophets Musa and Khizri (peace be upon them). Sometimes sheikhs, having some wise meaning or for the purpose of testing the murids, can commit an act that outwardly appears to be a sin, for example, like the “sin” that Khizri committed.
People close to Allah (avliya’) how sheikhs are not immune from sins, even big ones. Sinless people are a feature of only prophets and angels. Unlike others, the righteous, after falling into sin, immediately commit sincere repentance and deeply regret what they have done. By doing this, they will rise to a higher level, and will not see themselves in a better light compared to others. This is the wisdom of Allah that they can fall into sin.
A sin that a person regrets is much better for him than the worship of God that he is proud of. They also say that a repentant righteous person is much higher than one who has not committed a sin, even if they are identical in moral qualities and deeds, for the heart of a repentant person is overcome by enormous humility, grief and constant worry, in contrast to a person who has not committed a sin.
If today some people see a Sufi sheikh tasting various dishes and dressing in good clothes, they begin to deny his high degree, even if they see his obvious ability and positive impact on the murids. This is all for the reason that people rely on their understanding.
Even if the wali will limit himself only to fulfilling the obligatory and leaving the forbidden, this will not contradict his holiness. Because the hadith says that when someone asked the Prophet صل الله عليه وسلَّم: “If I avoid the forbidden and do only the obligatory, will I be sent to Paradise?”, he answered in the affirmative.” And the Prophet* said: “I am also a man like you, and I am angry like a man.” One of the Islamic scholars said that the meaning of Allah's words: “Awliya' is under My protection, and no one knows them except Me,” is that some awliya do not have special obvious qualities that ordinary people do not possess. Non-recognition of a sheikh because he does not observe something from the sunnah, or does what is permitted, is characteristic of the ignorant. His inherent influence on the murids is a sufficient condition for him to be considered an ustaz.
While near a murshid, do not eat food, do not wear his clothes, do not drink from his personal utensils, do not use his jug, do not sit on his vehicle or his personal seat unless he orders you. When following a murshid, do not do what he did not order, unless it is a prescription of the Sharia, for this can result in great disaster for you.
According to the words of the great theologians, one who follows the murshid in all his actions may fall into error, because the ustaz can perform some actions with a wise meaning. Therefore, you need to be careful and try to do what he teaches, but not repeat his actions.
Consider his punishment as a benefit to yourself, and if you are dissatisfied with this, then you will sink to a lower level and you should immediately repent. After the death of an ustaz, do not marry his wife, you can marry his daughter, like the companion Ali (ra) married the daughter of the Prophet *. Don't get on the transport before he gets on, but get off before him. If you happen to care for him, then don’t go to bed before him, don’t stand next to him when he’s on the toilet, and if it’s an open place, then don’t stand where you can see him, and don’t go to relieve yourself in the place where you relieved yourself. He. In short, don't use anything he uses, and always respect him and what he uses.
If he asks, don’t even hide your sin from him. Hurry to tell him about your experiences if they occupy a place in your heart. If you have doubts about him or the tariqa, clear them from your heart, otherwise they, like a dam, will block the way for the fayz emanating from him. Talk about spiritual states only with the murshid, and you should tell them to him without delay. If you don’t tell him about them, it will be a betrayal towards him.
In the book "Tasdiq al-ma"‘arif" in the commentary to the sura "Yusuf" words with the following meaning are given: “The murid is obliged to hide his dreams and mental states from all people, because the prophet Ya'qub commanded Yusuf (a.s.) not to tell his dream to his brothers. If concealment from brothers by kinship and faith, who were prophets and children of prophets, is necessary, then it is all the more impossible to tell strangers about them.”
It also notes: “One of the sheikhs said that, truly, if a novice murid tells others about his spiritual states of grace received from his virds, even if they are murids, then he will lose these states forever. And you need to tell your sheikh about them, he strengthens them and leads to perfection, and removes bad conditions from the murid. And if this is a false sheikh, then he deprives the murid of his good qualities.
Love those whom the Sheikh loves and turn away from those whom he does not love. Leave aside people who engage in forbidden innovations in religion, as well as people who have forgotten Allah, especially distance yourself from people who deny tariqa! If you get close to them, then callousness will enter your heart, causing the light to fade (nur) Huzur, and you will become careless towards Allah. And after that, your strong desire to remember Allah will disappear. If you taste the food of a person who denies tariqa, the source of faiz is closed for 40 days. Eat food that is pure from the forbidden; do not eat forbidden and questionable food, for such food gives rise to condemnable moral qualities.
In the book "ar-Rashahat" it is said: “The murid’s lack of sublime senses of taste from dhikr is mainly the result of his failure to observe moderation in food.”
If you eat food prepared by a sincere and God-fearing person who is constantly in complete ablution and huzur, then you will achieve good states of mind and huzur, and what you eat in the state of huzur will become medicine for you. You should eat in moderation and beware of waste and greed. When eating, do not forget about Allah, otherwise such behavior will lead to distraction from Him. If you eat in the state of huzur, you will achieve a high degree of it.
Sheikh al-Safi said that if at the beginning of a meal you say: and at the end you say “الحمد لله!”, then Allah will turn this food into nur. And if you eat for pleasure, even in small quantities, then Allah will turn this food into darkness.
In the book "an-Nafais al-sanihat" notes: “Mr. Nur-Muhammad al-Badawani (May Allah Almighty have mercy on him!) I have never eaten rich people’s food, since in most cases it is questionable.” Therefore, we should avoid questionable food; there is a lot of such food nowadays. Try to eat food that you prepared yourself from guaranteed products.
In the book "ar-Rashahat" It is said: “Even when eating a slice of bread, you need to take precautions. The one who prepares food should be in complete ablution, and even lighting a fire should have huzoor in his heart.”
The same book says: “You should be in khuzur even when heating water for performing ablution and preparing food, and also protect your tongue from everything that does not concern it, so that in the heart of the person who has performed ablution with this water or tasted this food, the light of huzur appeared. From water heated with abstraction from Allah, and food prepared with indifference, darkness and carelessness arise in the human heart.”
In the book "al-Hadaik al-wardiya" it is said: “Bahauddin an-Naqshbandi (may his soul be holy!) prepared food for the murids with his blessed hands and served them himself. When they started eating, he urged them to preserve khuzur. If they brought him food prepared in a state of anger or hatred, or those who prepared it were experiencing mental hardship, and if in such a state even one spoon touched the food, he would not stretch out his hand to it and would not allow others to eat it.”
Whoever does not constantly keep Allah Almighty in his heart while eating and drinking, Allah subsequently gives him contentment with small things, detachment from the worldly and preserving him from the evil of his nafs.
“After eating, before going to bed, allow the food to be digested by performing prayers and remembering (dhikr). The hadith says that if you go to bed immediately after eating, your heart will harden.” It says so in the book "Ihya'" Imam al-Ghazali.
“There is no doubt that a large amount of permitted food darkens the soul just as a small amount of forbidden food. Therefore, it is necessary that we digest food through dhikr before it affects our heart. Allah will help." Beware of laughter and anger - they both extinguish the nurs of the heart, killing it. Do not do what is of no benefit to either this or that world, do not ruin your precious life. Appreciate every breath you take, being diligent in dhikr and huzur, for it is irrevocable. Be diligent in serving the Almighty as if you were going to die now.
Adab of communication with the sheikh. Start a conversation with the ustaz only with his permission, in a quiet voice, avoiding illicit speeches and unpleasant words. Make sure there are no differences in thoughts and speech. Do not contradict the sheikh, even with your heart. Consider whatever the murshid says to be correct and do not contradict him. Talk to him only about your spiritual state and about things you do not understand, otherwise the fayz coming from the sheikh will stop.
When you are near a murshid, do not laugh loudly, for this is the worst thing for you. If you had a dream or witnessed a kashfu, tell him about it, but do not ask him to reveal the meaning of the dream and do not interpret it yourself. Never ask him about secret, intimate things. In everything, ask permission and advice from the murshid. What is done with his permission will carry grace, so in order to become its owner, do everything with his permission.
Truly, when the sheikh sees that the murid is observing all these precautions, he educates the murid with the help of special “nurturing water” - an elegant, wonderful drink, giving him to drink it. And he controls this murid with his moral spirit. Oh, what a great happiness for the one who perfectly observes adab in relation to the teacher (sheikh), and what a great misfortune for the one who behaves indecently.
Ask the Sheikh for permission before traveling and upon returning. If he comes to you, then, seeing him off, follow him until he says: “Come back.” When leaving, kiss his hand, wait until he disappears, thus trying to get a fayz from him. In a word, always exalt the sheikh in the same way as kings are exalted by their courtiers and subordinates of their superiors.
Adab of service to the sheikh. Assistance to the sheikh is provided both financially and physically. Everything you do for him is a service to Allah and the Messenger. Therefore, take this opportunity as a great mercy from Allah. Do not think of what you have done as something significant, otherwise it will turn into poison for you. Constantly give thanks to the Almighty who has made you one who helps the mentor, for the grace of help given in the above manner and with deep conviction will surely accrue to you.
Try to immediately carry out the will of the sheikh. If you have agreed on something with the sheikh, then do not be disobedient in fulfilling the agreement. Even if there is mortal danger for you, do not think about yourself, but always, first of all, carry out his will at the strictly specified time, without delaying the demands of the sheikh even for the blink of an eye.
For providing assistance and services to the murshid, do not look for any benefit and do not pursue selfish goals, for it is said: it is important that the murid does not try to benefit himself in anything: neither in achieving the knowledge of Allah, nor in having secret things revealed to him (fatah), nor in achieving the level of holiness (vilaya) and so on. And if it suddenly turns out that you have selfish goals in your soul, then repent without delay.
Don't stop where the Sheikh stopped. Don’t eat with him, don’t drink, don’t take off your headdress in front of him. There should be no other “nest” for a murid until he flies out of the “nest” of his sheikh. Only after this does the murid become an independent person, like a chick whose education has been completed and is able to fly on its own. Truly, when a chick becomes independent, it no longer needs its parents.
Don’t sit cross-legged in front of him, and only be near him with your legs tucked under you. Do not lie under his blanket or next to him, do not sleep, for this is also non-observance of adab. Do not pray near his bed or near him. You can pray if you are in the mosque with him or there is another Sharia necessity.
Look at yourself as a person unworthy to help him and constantly making omissions in everything related to service. Look for something that will benefit the murshid and do it without delay, even if he has not ordered it. If you behave this way, there will definitely be a place for you in his heart, and you will constantly receive fayz from the sheikh and begin to help him with even greater zeal and joy.
In the book "al-Baqiyat al-salihat", noted: “The murid should be diligent and fully devote his thoughts to what is required of him in a given situation. Engaging in the remembrance of Allah, when he is not busy serving the sheikh, brings peace to the Muslim. Truly, helping the sheikh, which is the reason for acceptance in the hearts of the sheikhs, takes precedence over dhikr. Truly, the fruits of helping the sheikh are the murshid’s love for him and the presence of a place for him in the sheikh’s heart. “Hearts by nature love those who do good for them.”
And in the book "al-Hadiqat al-wardiyya" Mr. Shah Naqshband (may Allah be pleased with him) notes: “I did not take this tariqa from books, but received it by helping the sheikh.” He also said: “Every person enters the tariqa through a certain gate, but I entered through the gate of serving the sheikh (khidma). The murid will not be able to compensate his sheikh for teaching him even one adab in the tariqa, even if he helps him day and night for the rest of his life.”
Adab for providing financial assistance. Be sure that all the good things that have been given to you, both children and property, you have received thanks to grace (barakatu) ustaz. Consider that everything you have - whether it be food, drink, clothing, etc. – I got everything thanks to the sheikh. Do not spend property for such purposes for which the sheikh would be ashamed, i.e. for what he will remain in debt to you in the eyes of other people, and ask Allah to accept everything you spent in favor of the sheikh. Pray with your heart that the murshid will accept your donation. It is advisable to give what you like most. If the Sheikh accepts your gift, accept it as a special favor for you, thanking and praising your Lord often
Adab of preparing the heart to receive faiz. The sixth adab is about sincerity and how to prepare the heart to receive fayz through the sheikh.
The murid must be sincere and convinced that the murshid is the governor (naib) Prophet صل الله عليه وسلَّم . Acceptance of a murid by a sheikh is tantamount to acceptance by Allah and the Prophet *, do not doubt it! If the sheikh rejects you, then his sheikh rejects you, and so on until the Prophet *.
The soul of a murshid does not leave the murid; it is always next to him. Some murids, who constantly feel her nearby, cannot sleep with their legs straight. Those who will be sure that his soul (ravhani) Sheikh nearby, even if they cannot see her, will also receive fayz, which those who see receive.
At the moment when the soul [of the murid] is separated from his body, the Ravkhani Murshid also comes and helps, just as in the grave during interrogation and after interrogation. As we mentioned above, for the soul there are no barriers or restrictions in either time or space.
Be also sure that the murshid sees and hears you wherever you are. He always knows about your condition, even if he never showed you this knowledge.
The entire space, the entire globe, is filled with his phase, just as the world is filled with sunlight. And you are in the aura of his faiz, and if you are convinced and sincerely strive to receive his faiz, then you will undoubtedly receive it.
Indeed, those who have kashfa see this nur of the murshid in this way, covering everything from east to west.
A murshid's sleep is better than our waking, and his eating is better than our fasting. In every moment he reaches such a great level in worship that a murid can only achieve throughout his entire life. Be also sure that the murshid has a special gaze; if he looks at someone with it, then this person, no matter how sinful he may be, will reach a high level. Constantly humbly ask him to look at you with that look.
Receiving the Sheikh's grace. Try with all your heart to receive grace from the murshid, showing true love for the Almighty, without paying any attention to your high position, degrees, property, loved ones and relatives. Don't think about your wealth or even about your essence. Do not rely on your efforts, but rely only on the mercy of Allah. Anyone who relies on his deeds will be left with nothing, so turn to Allah and ask Him: “We have no other mercy except from You.” Constantly strive to know Allah. Do not love anyone except Allah, for He will not accept love shared with anyone. To sincerely love what Allah loves is a sign of love for Him. And most of all, Allah loves prophets and righteous people, including sheikhs. While diligent in serving the Creator, strive to increase your good deeds, for, according to the hadith of the Prophet*, if you do not increase your good deeds, they will certainly decrease, and this is very condemnable.
Preparing the heart to receive faiz. Prepare your heart to receive fayz by freeing it from thoughts about the blessings of this world and even eternal life. Forget everything except Allah, and fix your gaze on your heart, be thirsty for the knowledge of the Almighty, loving Him immeasurably. Direct your heart towards the heart of the sheikh to receive his fayz, and, without allowing carelessness to prevail over you, strive to achieve the goal. If the gates of your heart open and your spiritual outlook improves, then fayz will flow to your heart. Whether you notice it or not, you will definitely receive fayz and grace from Ustaz if you have conviction about it.
In the book "al-Khalidiya" states: “Noticing this is not a condition for achieving knowledge of Allah. The condition is a constant desire for Him with confidence in achieving it at a given time.”
The sun's rays, which illuminate the whole world, do not penetrate into a house that has no windows. As you know, a house with open windows is flooded with sunlight. Likewise, the heart in which Allah is constantly present receives help from Him. Fayz is like pouring rain, and part of it will fall on the heart, in which there is no place for carelessness towards Allah, if there is conviction in the heart about this.
Adab of dhikr, ziyarat and khatma. There are only twenty ethical standards that a murid should observe when remembering Allah (dhikr). Five of them are before dhikr, and twelve adabs must be observed during dhikr and three after it. If you follow these etiquette standards, the result will be great and quick.
Adabs before remembering Allah:
1. Sincere repentance.
2. Do a complete ablution (ghusl), and if this is difficult to do, then at least a full small ablution (wuzu).
3. Hold the word in your heart with bated breath الله "Allah".
4. Then perform rabita on the murshid, begin the path to the Creator, making the sheikh an intermediary between you and God, and to receive the fayz emanating from the bridge of the murshid’s nose, imagine his venerable face in front of you.
Of the listed adabs, the last one that will help the murid most of all is being in a state of rabita, which is also stated in the book “al-Khalidiyya”.
The representation of the sheikh during dhikr is the deep wisdom of remembrance, because in this case the one remembering will be in front of the murshid in the image, and he will not allow him to forget the Almighty for a moment. Indeed, this is a useful injunction. This is stated in the book “Nur al-hidaya”.
5. When starting to read dhikr, the murid must ask the sheikh for help with his heart. It is also permissible to verbally appeal to the sheikh for help.
He should know that asking for help from his sheikh is asking for help from the Prophet himself, because the sheikh is the deputy of the Prophet *ظ
When reading dhikr, rabita allows you to discard all distracting thoughts and doubts. To gain huzoor and to prevent your thoughts from wandering, imagine a sheikh next to you. For purification from negative moral qualities, rabita is of the most importance, just as it is a means of driving away the shaitan, receiving fayz of Allah and achieving His knowledge. They even say that for a beginning murid, rabita is better than dhikr.
In the book "Jami‘u usul al-awliya'" it is said: “Truly, rabita is the shortest way to approach the Almighty and the source of the manifestation of amazing, extraordinary things. Zikr alone without rabita and fana’ in the sheikh does not lead to the knowledge of Allah. And as for rabitha with the observance of adab in relation to the sheikh, then even separately it is sufficient to achieve the degree of knowledge of Allah.”
Be confident in your murshid, for his acceptance of you is acceptance by the Almighty, rejection by him is also rejection by the Almighty.
There are six different types of performing rabitha, and they are described in detail in the book "Bakhjat". Everyone must perform the type of rabita that the sheikh taught him.
Not every murshid can receive rabita; he must be a sheikh who has achieved spiritual perfection. Spiritually perfect people should also testify to this. Rabita can be performed only on such murshids as, for example, Khalidshah, Mahmud-afandi, Saifullah-qadi and the like.
The result of the rabit depends on its quality. Whoever performs rabita imperfectly will not receive fayz and will not achieve the state of knowledge of Allah, and the secrets of knowledge of the Almighty will not be revealed to him.
Rabita is the largest and most important pillar of the tariqa, it purifies the soul, drives out the shaitan, is the source of true divine faiz and a means of knowing Allah.
After performing the rabita, say sincerely:
«الهي أنت مقصودي ورضاك مطلوبي».
Imbued with the meaning that these words carry, and repeat them perfectly and often, not only to cleanse your heart of lies, but also to extinguish all desires in yourself except Allah.
During dhikr, it is advisable to observe 12 adabs:
1. If possible, sit as if in prayer while reading Tashahhud.
2. Place your hands on your knees.
3. Before starting dhikr, use incense.
4. Be in a dark place.
5. Be in a deserted and quiet place.
6. Close your eyes.
7. Is in a state of rabita i.e. during dhikr, make a spiritual connection between the heart and the heart of the sheikh.
8. Observe ikhlas, remembering Allah sincerely, not paying attention to whether anyone sees you or not.
9. Not have any extraneous purpose other than fulfilling the command of Allah.
10. Dhikr should be the same as the sheikh taught you.
11. Understand the meaning of dhikr at least in general.
12. Protect your heart from all distracting thoughts.
Adab after dhikr. At the end of dhikr, you must observe three adabs, due to which you will benefit.
Adab first. Freeze and humbly direct your inner gaze to your heart (wukuf of the heart), waiting for the manifestation of the results of dhikr (varid). Warid can be expressed in such commendable qualities as renunciation of the heart from the worldly (zuhd), patience (sabr), etc.
Through warid, you can also acquire all the good character traits of the sheikhs, if you turn your gaze carefully to your heart. If after dhikr you quickly stand up and stop this gaze, then the warid may stop altogether.
The longer you look in your heart in this way, the better the warid will strengthen itself, taking the appropriate place in it. And then there is hope that you will be able to get from the warid what you will not get even from thirty years of diligence without wukf.
The second adab is concentrating your attention on the heart, in which you need to hold your breath and freeze like a cat watching a mouse.
As long as you can hold your breath without exertion, it is necessary to remain in this state. And repeat this three, five or seven times. If you concentrate your attention on your heart in this way with complete huzur, this will be more conducive to illuminating the heart, eliminating barriers between you and the Almighty and getting rid of extraneous thoughts.
Adab third. After dhikr, you should not immediately drink water, especially cold water, but should wait a while. This is due to the fact that dhikr raises the temperature of the heart, causing a surge of passionate love for the Almighty. This is the most important goal, and water, by cooling the body, can extinguish the surge of love for Allah.
Sufism, as one of the many currents of Islamic thought, originated in the Western century. as a reaction to some provisions of Islam that strictly regulate the spiritual life of a person. The traditions of Sufi philosophy took shape by the 8th century and developed in the works of Jami, Jalal ad-Din Rumi, poet-thinkers Hafiz, O. Khayyam. In the 11th-12th centuries, these traditions continue in the works of Ibn Sina, Al-Ghazali, Ibn Rushdt and other thinkers and not only of the Muslim East.
Sufism defends the right of every person to his own religious experience, to personal communication with God without intermediaries. In contrast to traditional Islam, Sufism places emphasis not on the external manifestation of religiosity, but on the internal self-improvement of a person. The goal of self-improvement is recognized as spiritual renewal. Some followers of Sufism believe that in the course of spiritual renewal, a person dissolves in God and thereby achieves the state of a “perfect person.”
The philosophical basis of the teachings of Sufism about man is the position that man is a being that reproduces in miniature the entire universe and is in an essential relationship and interdependence with the world, the unity of which lies in God. A person achieves Truth when he realizes his involvement in God and experiences unity with him.
However, the thesis about the unity of existence in God was not shared by all Sufi thinkers. There were differences in his interpretation. The most extreme position - the complete dissolution of man in God - was defended by al-Hallaj, who was convicted and executed by the authorities of the Abbasid Caliphate on charges of heretical identification of himself with God.
The famous Persian poet Jalaluddin Rumi agreed with this position, finding nothing heretical in it:
“You who seek God in the midst of the blue sky,
Leave these searches, you are He, and He is you.”
From Rumi's explanations it follows that such an identification expresses true humility, since it recognizes the dissolution of man in God and denies his independent existence, while the expression “I am a servant of God” contains a claim to an existence different from the existence of God.
Despite Rumi's explanations, such a position remained incompatible with traditional Islam. For it logically followed from it that there was no need to worship Muslim shrines... pilgrimages to holy places, etc. There is no need to go anywhere, Rumi argued:
“If you want to see God eye to eye -
From the mirror of the soul, wipe away the dregs of humility and the dust of rumor.
And then, like Rumi, illuminated by the truth,
See yourself in the mirror, because the Almighty is you.”
The ability to become a “perfect person” lies within every person. The Prophet Muhammad is considered in Sufism to be the “perfect man”, thanks to whom God is present on Earth. But he is not unique, for a perfect person does not appear at the direction of God, but as a manifestation of necessity in the eternal movement of the universe, which is God. Thus, in Sufism, nature is reduced to God.
It would seem that one should expect that, from the point of view of Sufism, all people are capable of comprehending the Truth, having achieved, thanks to knowledge, unity with God. However, in reality, supporters of Sufism claim that only sages have this ability, and even then not to the full extent. What prevents the full comprehension of the Truth? Why aren't all people capable of this?
The problem is related to the existence of different ways of knowing and the difference in their capabilities. Sufism recognizes the study of the external world in a rational way, but comprehension of God in this way is impossible. Sufi authors defined the types of knowledge in different ways, but they all agreed that the most important is the type in which knowledge turns into true confidence, excluding doubts and errors inherent in reason. This type of knowledge is embedded in a person’s heart and is perceived by him as insight: “Confidence is the light that God puts in a person’s heart”; Since certainty presupposes inner experience, the way to comprehend it is intuition.
It turns out that the Truth, which followers of Sufi thought associate with God, is in principle comprehensible. This distinguishes Sufism from traditional Islam, which requires taking on faith everything connected with God. At the same time, the specificity of this method of comprehension - through intuition - is such that it requires the dissolution of the subject in the object. Is it fully possible? Apparently, supporters of Sufism doubted this, which prompted some to directly assert the incomprehensibility of God, others to associate the possibility of knowledge with exceptional abilities.
Uncertainty about the possibility of achieving the truth or even confidence in the impossibility of its complete comprehension does not turn Sufis away from knowledge. Rather, on the contrary, it stimulates the desire to get as close as possible to the Absolute, even without hope of complete success.
The specificity of comprehension through intuition requires a certain level of culture of mystical experience, which is the property of an individual and cannot be expressed in a rational way. We are talking about the ecstatic state of a fan, which can be designated, its very fact recorded, but not known, but only experienced, felt. It is impossible to transfer an ecstatic state to another person, but you can cause a reciprocal movement of the soul in another person. Words are of little help here. Representatives of Sufism place more hope in wordless communication, emphasizing that words can lead to error, while direct contact of souls eliminates discrepancies. True, souls must be prepared for such contact, otherwise the cry of the Sufi’s soul will be interpreted as silence, because it is not intelligible to the ears. If it is impossible to do without words, then they should be used allegorically. Hence the large number of stable images and comparisons widely used in Sufi poetry. For example, the desire for knowledge is depicted in the form of a butterfly flying into the light and burning in the flame of a candle; a person’s relationship to God is described through the relationship of a lover to his beloved; comprehending the truth in mystical ecstasy is compared to drinking wine and getting drunk, etc.
In passing, we note that, although poetry in general is characterized by imagery, difficulties may arise in the perception of Arabic and Persian-language poetry. The images of a lover and beloved, for example, are so widespread in world poetry that it is not always easy to establish whether they are used in a literal or figurative sense, to describe the feelings of a man and a woman or a Sufi and God.
So, due to the specific way of comprehending the Absolute, we cannot be sure that we have known the complete truth. However, it would be logical to expect that everything will strive towards it: after all, the spark of the divine presence is contained in every person. Why don’t all people follow the path of improvement?
Sufi thinkers imagine the path of improvement as follows. An ignorant person, busy with everyday worries and selfish desires, forgets about his involvement in God. He needs to make an effort on himself in order to free himself from his own egoism, from attachment to worldly goods and affirm his true “I”. M.T. Stepanyants showed that from the point of view of Sufism, in principle, every person has such potentials, but not every person is internally ready to do something in this direction and that the difference between a simple person and a sage lies in the degree of their readiness to make their choice in favor of the truth. Al-Hallaj considered the sage to be the one who “has his own torch” i.e. who does not need any instructions or admonitions regarding the choice being made.
Sufism deals with the problem of free will, but deals with it inconsistently. On the one hand, Sufism is characterized by fatalism, as is the case with most movements in Islam: if a person is not an independent reality, but just one of the manifestations of the divine essence, then he is not the master of his destiny. On the other hand, it is important for followers of Sufism to defend the idea of free will in order to justify the need for human active participation in the implementation of the divine plan.
Rumi explained the combination of fatalism with the recognition of free will by the fact that God, having created a person in a certain way, outlined the boundaries of his capabilities, within which he pushed him to perform certain actions. For example, if a person has hands, it means God wants him to work. And here you shouldn’t be a fatalist, Rumi believed. One must do the work for which God intended man.
To behave correctly means to make a choice in favor of the true path. The combination of fatalism with free will allowed Sufism to allow the possibility of choice for a person between good and evil, truth and error. God, as it were, subjects man to a test, allowing him to interpret his destiny in different ways. According to Rumi, it turns out that man himself is presented with a choice between good and evil, which exist before the choice and independently of it:
Place a sword in his (man's) hands and free him from helplessness,
To see whether he will become a warrior or a robber.
Rumi linked the origins of good and evil with divine attributes and asserted their necessary presence in all earthly manifestations.
Once again, Sufism diverged from traditional Islam, which argued, with reference to the Koran, that evil comes from man himself, while good comes from Allah.
If we recognize evil as a necessary side of existence, the existence of which man has no control over, then is it possible to blame a person for the evil he has committed? Supporters of Sufism believe that it is possible. The sinfulness of man, in their opinion, lies in the fact that he cannot cope with worldly temptations and does not feel a strong enough desire to direct himself along the true path. What would his choice be worth if there were no temptations?
The peculiarities of Sufism became the reason that in the twentieth century. the attitude towards him turned out to be ambiguous. On the one hand, the Sufi view of man remains quite attractive; on the other hand, it no longer corresponded to the spirit of the times and was in need of modernization. Like Vedanta, it was subject to rethinking in social terms, although Sufism in its traditional form did not cease to exist.
The most prominent representative of Sufism, rethought in a social direction, was Muhammad Iqbal (1873-1938), a poet and thinker of Hindustan, who wrote in Urdu, Farsi and English.
M. Iqbal drew attention to such, from his point of view, weakness of Sufism as isolation, the proclamation of individual self-improvement through ecstatic merging with God as the goal of human aspirations. A person cannot live outside society and should not be isolated from it, Iqbal argued. Only in society are the multifaceted abilities of a person revealed.
For a person to belong to society is a blessing;
Society promotes the perfection of his virtues;
When a person identifies himself with society,
He is like a drop that in the ocean becomes the ocean itself.
An isolated individual knows neither goals nor ideals
And he cannot find use for his capabilities...
Recognizing the divine presence in man, Iqbal insisted on the need for the full development of human potentials in the name of unity with God, as opposed to the traditional Sufi idea of the dissolution of man in God, which, according to Iqbal, degrades and depersonalizes man. Iqbal considered man to be a collaborator with God, as he is entrusted with the mission of putting into action the divine creations and perfecting them.
If Rumi emphasized the determining character of divine creations and the complementarity and insignificance of human efforts:
He (the man) gave me a hat,
And You (god) are a head full of thoughts.
He gave me a horse
And You are the mind to control it, -
Then Iqbal turns out that God gave man materials or conditions for work, and the creations themselves turn out to be the work of human hands. In Iqbal's poem "Conversation between the Creator and Man", a man declares to God:
You created the night, but I got the fire.
You created the clay, I made the vial.
You created the desert and the blocks of rocks,
I created a garden so that the world would smell fragrant.
I am the one who turned sand into glass
And deadly poison - into the sweetest juice.
God, according to Akbal, deliberately limits his own power in order to give scope to human activity. Therefore, to refuse active activity means for a person to violate the divine destiny. Having elevated man to the co-author of his creations, God allows him to freely choose between good and evil.
On the question of the nature of good and evil, Iqbal agreed with the previous Sufi thought, according to which both good and evil have an objective nature. Iqbal considered evil to be a necessary side of the universe, without which there can be no life. Carrying out a destructive mission in relation to one state of affairs, it is an impulse to change them, to create a new one. In the poem “The Conquest of Nature,” Satan, addressing the Creator, defined his role in the world as follows:
...I break what I created and create something new again...
You lit the constellations - I inspired them to fly and whirl.
You opened being - I gave burning to being.
You breathed a soul into flesh, I filled this soul with anxiety.
You appear as peace, I appear as confusion.
Evil understood in this way cannot be destroyed. It needs to be comprehended and put at the service of good through the development of nature and society.
Iqbal insisted that the desire for God is achieved not by ignoring earthly life, not by leaving it, but by an outburst of fiery love that embraces the whole world, expanding the boundaries of the human soul to universal proportions. Such love is akin to Sufi “intoxication”, “madness”.
By fulfilling his divine destiny, man must change the world. Thus, Iqbal asserted the need for active social activity, considering the “perfect man” a fighter for social change:
The blood of a tulip heart is like wine,
It is a shame for a Sufi to live in captivity under asceticism...
“Adapt to the times” - a hadith for the ignorant:
If you are dissatisfied with the era, go to war with it!
Thus, Iqbal placed first place not spiritual, but social asceticism. The task of the ascetic is to become a prophet, i.e. not just to achieve mystical unity with God, which the Sufis of earlier times sought, but to use the acquired knowledge to transform society: “The desire to see one’s religious experience transformed into a living world force is the highest desire of the prophet,” Iqbal said.
To achieve perfection, a person must go through several stages. First, he comprehends the laws of existence expressed in the teachings of Islam and obeys them. Then a person learns to give up everything external in order to focus on himself, on self-development. And in the final stage, a person will have to move on to self-affirmation in activities based on divine principles. With his last remark, Iqbal removed the possibility of subjectivist interpretations of the remaking of society. He thought of the revolutionary transformation of society as a return to the principles of Islam. Iqbal believed that socialist democracy is an adequate means for the all-round development of the individual, thanks to which man will turn into a full-fledged associate of God and will contribute to the establishment of the Kingdom of God on Earth.
The humanistic orientation of Iqbal’s thought is beyond doubt. But what is its source - that is the question! Should Iqbal be considered to have developed the humanistic tradition of Sufism, or would it be more correct to say that he supplemented Sufism with the principle of humanism borrowed from European philosophy? Something to think about! We know from mathematics that through two points lying on the same plane we can draw only one straight line, but as many curves as we like! Therefore, let us compare Iqbal's views with earlier representatives of Sufism, say, Al-Ghazali of Persia, Farid ad-din Attar (chemist), Maulana Jalal ad-din Rumi, Jami and Avicenna. In a word, let’s analyze their philosophical and religious views.
SUFISM– Muslim asceticism, asceticism and mysticism. The etymology has not been firmly established, although the name is considered to be derived from the word “wool” (the hair shirt of ascetics), or “bench” (ascetics sat on them), or simply a set of sounds. The first Sufis appeared in the 8th century, shortly after the emergence of Islam. Mystical experience begins to receive theoretical understanding from al-Hasan al-Basri, Dhu-n-Nun al-Misri (8th–9th centuries), al-Kharraz (d. 899), philosophical ideas can be traced in Abu-Yazid al-Bistami ( d. 875), Abu Mansur al-Hallaj (executed 922), Abu al-Qasim al-Qushayri (986–1072), etc. In Sufism, moderate and extreme movements are usually distinguished. A kind of “legalization” of moderate Sufism is usually associated with the name of Hamid ad-Din al-Ghazali (1058–1111), a thinker who belonged to the Ash’arite school of kalam and expressed sympathy for the Sufi way of knowing God as the achievement of true knowledge. Al-Hallaj can be considered a prominent representative of extreme Sufism with his famous formula “ana-l-haqq (“I am the Truth”), identifying the “I” of the mystic with God. Although among representatives of strict orthodoxy, aligned with fundamentalism, including modern , Sufism has always aroused suspicion, if not outright hostility, this movement has remained and remains very popular and covers the widest strata of Muslims.
Sufism also created its own philosophy, which raised fundamental questions that faced classical Arab philosophical thought: how the Origin of the universe, God, can be understood strictly as the only one and at the same time generating all the diversity of the world; what is man’s place in the world and his relationship to God and the divine; what are its capabilities and boundaries of knowledge and action. Sufism as a philosophical movement relied on the diversity of experience accumulated by the previous four schools of classical Arab philosophy (kalam, Arab peripatetism, Ismailism and Ishraqism), and used the categorical apparatus of philosophical thinking that had developed by that time, which was the result of both the development of its own tradition and, to a large extent, assimilation ancient heritage. The philosophy of Sufism enjoyed significant influence during the late Middle Ages, retaining it virtually until our time.
The most outstanding Sufi philosopher is Muhiyi ad-Din (Mohiddin) Ibn "Arabi, who received the honorary title of "Great Sheikh." He was born in 1165 in the city of Murcia (the south of modern Spain), in Andalusia, which was then part of the Arab Caliphate and served as a kind of crossroads civilizations, the center of philosophy and culture. The future mystic received the traditional education of a Muslim scientist. His works contain a lot of evidence of the insights that visited him, often of conversations with mystics of the past or prophets. Ibn "Arabi traveled a lot, and from 1223 he lived in Damascus, where he died in 1240. The great sheikh was familiar with the writings of the outstanding Sufis al-Kharraz, al-Muhasibi, al-Hallaj, al-Isfaraini.
Researchers trace direct and indirect connections and polemics with the ideas of al-Ghazali. Evidence of Ibn "Arabi's contacts with Ibn Rushd and other famous thinkers of that time has been preserved. His influence was experienced to one degree or another not only by almost all famous Sufi thinkers of subsequent generations, but also by representatives of other schools of thought, most of all - late Ishraqism. Sharp criticism and rejection of the idea of Ibn "Arabi was caused by the famous faqih Ibn Taymiyya (1263–1328), which was directly continued in the ideology of Wahhabism, which traces its ideas to this thinker. At the same time, such a famous faqih as al-Suyuti (15th century) came out in defense of Ibn Arabi.
The most important philosophical works of Ibn Arabi are Meccan revelations (al-Futuhat al-makkiyya) And Gems of Wisdom(Fusus al-hikam). His poetry is presented in the collection Statement of Passion(Tarjuman al-ashwak). It is believed that he was the author of more than 100 works. The fame of Ibn "Arabi became the reason for the false attribution of many works. Among the apocrypha is a two-volume Interpretation of the Koran(Tafsir al-kur"an), Tree of existence(Shajarat al-qawn), God's word(Kalimat al-lah), God's wisdom(al-Hikma al-"ilahiyya).
The Meccan revelations have not yet been fully translated into foreign languages due to the volume of the work, which is rightly called the “encyclopedia of Sufism,” containing discussions on almost all issues of the theory and practice of Sufism. In addition to philosophical ones, many other issues relating to cosmology and angelology, Hurufism (the doctrine of the supernatural properties of letters), prophecy and Revelation, etc. are considered. The final chapter Meccan revelations represents instructions to murdam - students of Sufi mentors, executed mainly in the form of maxims, although equipped with philosophical comments. Philosophical views developed by Ibn Arabi in Meccan revelations, are consistent with his concepts, set out in a much more condensed form in Gemmahs of Wisdom, written at the end of the author's life. A work with a similar title - Book of Gems(Kitab al-fusus) – is considered to be from the pen of al-Farabi. It expounds the doctrine of the First Principle and its relation to its consequence - the world, develops the dialectic of the manifestation and hiddenness of the First Principle, proving that one is impossible without the other. Although the ideas of this work are close to those expressed by Ibn Arabi, it is difficult to say with certainty anything beyond this regarding the connection between the two works. Gems of Wisdom consist of 27 chapters, each of which is associated with one of the messengers or prophets. The presentation is not systematic in the sense that would be true in relation to the Western tradition, but it reveals unconditional internal coherence and consistency both in terminological, conceptual and thematic terms, without departing from the criteria of rational validity and consistency of the provisions presented. Ibn "Arabi argues with the Arabic-speaking Peripatetics on the question of the way to understand the unity of the First Principle, with al-Ghazali on the question of the possibility of its knowledge outside of connection with the world, with the Mutakallim on the question of the justification of the concept of "substance" in the light of the atomic theory of time. Some non-philosophical issues are also touched upon questions such as dream symbolism.
The philosophical innovation of Sufism and at the same time the essence of the concept of this school are associated with a radical reworking of the idea of juxtaposition, which served as a kind of guiding principle in understanding the question of the relationship of the First Principle of things to things, eternity to time, the problematic of causality, etc. In Sufism, this exclusion of the Origin from the series it generates is questioned, and at the same time there is a rejection of the concept of absolute linearity and, as a consequence, the possibility of unambiguously fixing the place of a thing in the series defined by the Origin. This means, among other things, that it is impossible to unambiguously define the hierarchical relationship between any two things: each can be considered both superior to the other and superior to the other.
The First Principle and the series of things generated by it are understood in Sufism as conditions of each other. When the relationship between them is described in terms of “explicit - hidden” (zahir - batin) or “root - branch” (asl - far), the linearity characteristic of the previous tradition of Arabic philosophical thinking gives way to mutual precedence: both the Origin and the derivatives of in it, things can be characterized in mutual relation both as obvious and as hidden, and as a basis and as a branch. The own terminology of Sufism, which calls the First Principle “Truth” (al-haqq), a number of things in the world – “Creation” (al-khalq), and their dual unity – “world order” (al-“amr), emphasizes this relationship, calling the latter “Truth -Creation." The concepts of "precedence" (takaddum) and "following" (ta "akhhur) play in classical Arab-Muslim philosophical thought the most important role in the ordering of existence, arranging it in the Neoplatonic spirit in a fixed sequence on the ladder of perfection: the closer to the Origin , the more perfect the existing, surpassing everything that follows it, i.e. is located below it. But in Sufism, these concepts lose their fixed ranking and instead acquire the property of transforming one into another and, moreover, necessarily presupposing the other as its own characteristic: the preceding cannot turn out to be the preceding without being at the same time the subsequent, and vice versa.
The philosophy of Sufism is based on the atomic concept of time, created in Kalam. Since in any moment two events, destruction and creation, are juxtaposed, the world of things in every moment returns to eternity and in the same moment arises as temporary. Time and eternity in such a dual unity are inseparable from each other, and they cannot be imagined without the other. Moreover, it is impossible to unambiguously resolve the issue of their priority, since time turns out to be not just coeternal with eternity, but also a condition and form of its implementation.
The duality of opposites, which is discussed in Sufism, is a characteristic of the completeness of truth and does not imply the need to remove antitheses in some kind of synthesis. Comprehension of the fullness of this truth is the goal and at the same time the content of the method of cognition, which is called “confusion” (khayra) and has nothing to do with the “confusion” that in antiquity was associated with aporia. The dual unity of opposites revealed in “confusion” can be expressed in the most general form as a dialectic of affirmation and denial of the “otherness” (gairiyya) of things relative to each other. Their ranking, or mutual “superiority” (tafadul) in temporary existence is removed by their eternal hypostasis, due to which any thing turns out to be both different and non-other in relation to any other thing. Although “confused” knowledge is expressed discursively, it is directly related to the act of direct cognition and in no way contradicts the truth of the latter. In this sense, the theory of knowledge of Sufism and its philosophy based on “confused” knowledge can be seen as an attempt to bridge the gap between direct and discursive knowledge, which was tacitly recognized in classical Arab-Muslim philosophy.
The thesis about the dual unity of the world order, in which Truth and Creation (the Origin and the universe, God and the world) posit each other as conditions for themselves and one is impossible without the other, is central to Sufi philosophy in the classical form that it received in the works of Ibn Arabi The study of this thesis from the perspective of all the central philosophical problems of the classical period constitutes the content of the philosophy of Sufism. But the significance of this thesis is not limited to philosophy itself. It extends beyond it, covering, in particular, issues of ethics, everyday morality and doctrine.
Sufi thinkers generally remain faithful to Islam's position that this teaching is the highest and final expression of the true creed brought to humanity. Expressing the idea that it is the followers of Muhammad who belong to the “highest place” in the universe, Ibn Arabi proves that this exaltation concerns two components of religion - knowledge and action: the general Islamic position on the inseparability of these two sides retains its force, neither of which in isolation does not constitute faith. In the same way, Sufism supports the position of Islam that the purpose of sending down faith is the “benefit” (manfa"a) of people. The equally unconditional rooting of the ethical thought of Sufism in the general Islamic soil is evidenced by the categorical rejection of the ideas and ideals of Christian monasticism, which is all the more eloquent in the mouths of authors as tolerant as the Sufis: the fundamental denial of the attitude towards overcoming the flesh as such (as the source of sinfulness, and not the limitation of carnal excesses, as is characteristic of, say, rigoristic Ismailism) is characteristic of all Islamic authors, with the obvious exception of al-Suhrawardi and some other representatives of Ishraqism, in whom the idea of overcoming corporeality has equally pre-Christian and pre-Islamic, primarily Zoroastrian, roots.
Another important provision of Islamic ethics is the direct connection between action and intention. Intention directly determines the result of an action: everyone gets what they are looking for. However, such unambiguous judgments are possible only in the sphere of adab (moralizing instructions), including Sufi ones, since they directly contradict the main thesis of the philosophy of Sufism - the impossibility of unambiguously fixing one or another statement as final. Therefore, Sufi ethics, to the extent that it forms an organic part of the general philosophical constructions of this school, contains little basis for the traditional classification of intentions and the actions accompanied by them. Moreover, Sufi philosophy in its most subtle constructions deprives ethical reasoning of the real basis on which they are built in traditional theories.
An ethical judgment regarding human action presupposes the fundamental possibility of determining the agent, the one who carries out the action. It, further, is possible only if the action gives a natural result; if the same action can lead to unpredictably different consequences, no unambiguous assessment is possible.
But it is precisely these foundations that are questioned by Sufi philosophy. In Sufism, it is impossible to unambiguously correlate a person’s action with his own or with the divine will. The same applies to the definition of the actor himself: since a person is the embodiment of God, it is impossible to directly correlate an action with a person without simultaneously correlating it with God, which means that the question of a person’s responsibility for his actions cannot have an unambiguous answer. The definition of the true agent for actions performed by a person is connected with issues that were vividly discussed in Kalama. In Sufism, both man and God can be called true agents with equal right, and these points of view are not only not alternative, but are necessary as conditions for one another. This refers to the consideration of the relationship between the temporal and eternity aspects of existence within one atom of time. As for two even neighboring atoms of time, not to mention more distant ones, they are not connected by causality relations, which creates a fundamental difficulty in substantiating ethics. At the same time, Sufism adopted and developed numerous moral maxims that soften this “ethical nihilism” of high philosophy. In addition, in practical Sufism, especially in its mature period associated with the formation of various orders, various practices were developed for improving the adept, leading him along the “path” (ar a, also maslaq) to the highest stages of knowledge. They are based on the idea of the possibility of a graded increment of perfection as a result of the focused efforts of the adept, thereby focusing on the processuality of improvement, although they have little basis in the philosophical system of Sufism itself, where the concept of “perfect person” (ins n k mil, also ins n t mm ) is more metaphysical than ethical in nature.
The same ideas are developed in Sufism using one of the central categories of fiqh (religious and legal thought) - the term “amr (“command”). Expressing the idea of the unfixed content of even such a seemingly uniquely defined concept (a command is directed from God to man and always presupposes submission to him, i.e. obedience as a commendable action), Sufism distinguishes between a “creative command” (“amr taqwiniyy”) and “indirect command” (“amr bi-l-wasita): an indirect command may not be carried out, but a creative command is always fulfilled The command expressed in the Law is mediated, and therefore its implementation depends on whether it coincides or does not coincide with the divine will, expressed as a creative command. In the context of this teaching, the concepts of “praise - blame” (hamd - zamm), as well as “ obedience - disobedience" (ta"a -ma"siya), so important for Islamic ethics, lose their uniqueness, ceasing to express the conformity or non-compliance of human actions with the divine will. In every action, man is guided by God, or rather, by himself through God and in God. For example, “passion” (hawan), one of the most condemned qualities of the human soul by Islamic ethics, turns out to be in fact a passionate desire for God: both in the sense that it is directed in any case towards God, and in the sense that a person overwhelmed by passion expresses the desire of God himself, and not someone else. Classification of states of the soul is also possible on the basis of the idea that the objects of aspiration, what a person strives for, are different and separated from one another, and some of them are beneficial, while others are harmful; precisely because, in the traditional understanding, passion is detrimental to the soul, and modesty is useful, because the first turns away from the useful and brings more harm than good, and the second, on the contrary, contributes to the acquisition of the useful. But since nothing is other than God, since no thing in the world freezes within the boundaries of its unconditional difference from everything else, but at every moment returns to God so that at the same moment it can arise as something else, then passion does not lead astray a person from the only true path leading him to good and happiness, as traditional theories interpret, simply because there is no only true path and every path leads to God. These ideas are directly related to the position of the totality of true religion, which is one of the distinctive features of Sufism.
According to Sufi authors, Islam is certainly the true confession, but equally certainly it is not the exclusively true confession. Islam is knowledge about God and action corresponding to this knowledge. However, no thing in the world is other than the knowledge of God, and therefore no knowledge is other than knowledge about God. The same applies to action: no action is performed for the sake of something other than God, which means that every action is done in the name of the only God. Therefore, an essential consequence of Sufi philosophy is religious tolerance, expressed in the principle “it is impossible to worship anything other than the true God.” Any worship turns out to be essentially the worship of the Truth, but under the obligatory condition that it does not claim exclusive possession of the truth, thus presupposing other confessions (including those that seem to exclude itself, just as “polytheism” excludes “monotheism”) as its own condition. This thesis, which causes extreme hostility among some Muslim traditionalist ideologists, appeals, coupled with the mystical component of Sufism, to modern consciousness, which largely explains the popularity of Sufi ideas.
These general philosophical principles, when applied to specific episodes in the history of the relationship between mankind and a deity or deities, which are told in the Koran, give paradoxical consequences. According to Ibn “Arabi, it is impossible to deny the truth of any of the religions; the idolatry of the ancient Arabs, the religion of the Egyptians (the Koranic Pharaoh appears as an avowed enemy of monotheism and true faith), any Laws and doctrinal codes of any religions are true. On the contrary, those who tried to prove their unconditional falsity, acted to the detriment of the true confession.The only thing that can be untrue in any of the religions is its claim to exclusive truth and rejection of the truth of other religions.
Philosophical Sufism after Ibn "Arabi developed under the decisive influence of his ideas. The views of Ibn "Arabi later became known as the concept of wahdat al-wujud (“unity of existence”), which found supporters in the Sufi environment in the person of such outstanding thinkers as al-Kashani (d. 1329) and al-Jili (1325–1428), and met opposition from al-Simnani (d. 1336), who came up with the alternative theory of wah dat al-shuhud ("unity of witnessing"). Sufism had a great influence on Arab-Muslim philosophical thought, especially during the late Middle Ages, as well as on culture in general. Sufi ideas became more famous thanks to the work of such poets and thinkers as Farid ad-Din al-Attar (d. 1220), Ibn al-Farid (1181–1235), Jalal ad-Din ar-Rumi (1207–1273) and others, based on Sufi symbolism of love, longing for the Beloved, etc.
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