Eliade M. History of faith and religious ideas
§ 166. Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus and the Capitoline Triad
Unlike the ancient Greeks, who early formed and clearly defined their pantheon, the Romans early period their history had a simple hierarchy, which included the archaic triad - Jupiter-Mars-Quirinus, as well as Janus and Vesta. Janus, as the patron god of all “beginnings,” was first on the list, and Vesta, the patroness Ancient Rome, closed it. However, the ancient authors mentioned a number of deities - indigenous or borrowed from the Greeks and Etruscans, without telling us anything definite about their hierarchy or functions. Ancient authors sometimes made a distinction between di indigetes and divi novensiles, the former being considered popular (patrii) deities, the latter - those who came later (Varro. “On the Latin Language,” V, 74; Virgil. “Georgics,” I, 498). We find the most valuable evidence from Titus Livy in his description of devotio: next to the names of the four highest gods (Janus, Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus) Bellona and Lara (deities of war and earth), divi novensiles and di indigetes are mentioned, and finally the gods of mana and Tellus (§ 164).
There is no doubt about the ancient origin of the Jupiter-Mars-Quirinus triad: the hierarchical duties of the three senior flayins of the novas clearly reflected the height of the position of those gods whose cult they affirmed. Jupiter is the king of the gods, the heavenly thunderer, the sacred principle and guarantor of just justice, universal fertility and cosmic order; he, however, does not interfere in wars: this is the prerogative of Mars (Mavors, Mamers) - the warrior god of all the Italian peoples. In some places, Mars was also revered as the god of peaceful activities; This is a fairly common tendency in the history of religions towards divine totalitarianism: the “imperial” focus of some gods on expanding the boundaries of their sphere of action. Quirin was distinguished by this more than all other gods. As we have already seen (§ 165), the flamen of Quirinus participated in only three ceremonies, those dedicated to agriculture. The etymology of the name of this god leads to the same root as the word viri, and therefore covirites - curia, assembly of Roman citizens. This god took on the third function of the divine Indo-European triad; However, in Rome, as elsewhere, the third divine function - service to the community - underwent a distinct fragmentation, natural in the conditions of the growing diversity and dynamism of public life.
As for the gods Janus and Vesta, their reunion with the ancient triad probably continues the Indo-European tradition. According to Varro, Janus belongs to the prima, the beginnings, and Jupiter, to the summa, the heights. Thus Jupiter is rex, since prima are inferior to summa: the former have priority in time, the latter in dignitas [dignity]. Janus' place in space - entrance doors and gates. He rules the "beginning of the year" - this is his role in the time cycle. And in historical time, his place is at the beginning of events: he was the first king of Latium and the ruler during the golden age: then people and gods lived together (Ovid. "Fasti", I, 247-48). He is considered two-faced, bifrons: “any entrance is two places, two states, where they came from and where they entered” (Dumezil, p. 337). Its ancient origin is undeniable: both the Indo-Iranians and the Scandinavians also knew the “first gods.”
The name of the goddess Vesta comes from an Indo-European root meaning “burning,” and the sacred hearth of Rome was the constant fire ignis Vestae. As Dumezil showed, the fact that all Roman temples were quadrangular at the base, except for the sanctuary of Vesta - round - is explained by the Indian teaching on the symbolism of Earth and Heaven: when laying the temple, it should be oriented along the four cardinal directions, but the monastery of Vesta is not a temple, templum , and aedes sacra, all the power of the goddess is on earth. Vesta had no guises, except for the only one - fire ("Fasti", VI, 299) - another proof of her ancient origin
and connections with tradition: initially, not a single Roman deity had a specific incarnation. During the period of Etruscan domination, the former triad Jupiter-Mars-Quirinus was replaced by another triad, Jupiter-Juno-Minerva, established during the time of the Tarquins. Under Latin-Etruscan, and indeed Greek influences, the gods developed an appearance. Jupiter Optimus Maximus - this is how Jupiter will henceforth be called - appears before the Romans in the form of the Greek Zeus with some Etruscan features. New heroes - new rituals. For example, the custom of the Senate honoring a victorious commander - a triumph - takes place under the sign of Jupiter; During the celebrations, the triumphant is, as it were, personified into the supreme deity: crowned with a laurel wreath, in the attire of the gods, he slowly rides in a chariot. Despite the presence in his temple of statues of other gods - Juno and Minerva, supreme god
- he, Jupiter, and vows or dedications are addressed to him. J. Dumezil draws our attention to the fact that “Juno is the most important Roman goddess, and she is also the most mysterious” (p. 299). Her name, Juno, is derived from a root meaning "life force". It has numerous functions; under her auspices, some holidays related to female fertility are held (like Lucina, she is called upon to assist in childbirth), holidays of the beginning lunar month
The name of Minerva, the patroness of arts and crafts, is probably of Italic origin from the Indo-European root men, which originally denoted all types of spiritual activity. The name Menrva (Minerva) came to the Romans from Etruria, where this goddess was a version of the Greek Pallas Athena.
The Capitoline triad does not continue any Roman tradition. Only Jupiter can be considered an Indo-European heritage. The association of Juno with Minerva occurred among the Etruscans; in the hierarchy of their pantheon there was also a divine triad, which, for example - and besides this we know nothing more about it - sanctified the foundation of temples (cf.: Servius. Ad Aen., 1, 422).
Unlike the ancient Greeks, who early formed and clearly defined their pantheon, the Romans in the early period of their history had a simple hierarchy, which included the archaic triad - Jupiter-Mars-Quirinus, as well as Janus and Vesta. Janus, as the patron god of all sorts of “beginnings,” was first on the list, and Vesta, the patroness of Ancient Rome, was at the rear. However, the ancient authors mentioned a number of deities - indigenous or borrowed from the Greeks and Etruscans, without telling us anything definite about their hierarchy or functions. The ancient authors sometimes made a distinction between di indigetes And divi novensiles, the first were considered folk (patrii) deities, the second - those who came later (Varro."On the Latin Language", V, 74; Virgil."Georgics", I, 498). We find the most valuable evidence from Titus Livy in his description devotio: next to the names of the four highest gods (Janus, Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus) Bellona and Lara (deities of war and earth) are mentioned, divi novensiles And di indigetes, and finally the gods of mana and Tellus (§ 164).
There is no doubt about the ancient origin of the Jupiter-Mars-Quirinus triad: the hierarchical duties of the three senior flayins of the novas clearly reflected the height of the position of those gods whose cult they affirmed. Jupiter is the king of the gods, the heavenly thunderer, the sacred principle and guarantor of just justice, universal fertility and cosmic order; he, however, does not interfere in wars: this is the prerogative of Mars (Mavors, Mamers) - the warrior god of all the Italian peoples. In some places, Mars was also revered as the god of peaceful activities; This is a fairly common tendency in the history of religions towards divine totalitarianism: the “imperial” focus of some gods on expanding the boundaries of their sphere of action. More than any other god, Quirin was distinguished by this. As we have already seen (§ 165), Quirin’s flamen participated in only three ceremonies, those dedicated to agriculture. The etymology of the name of this god leads to the same root as the word viri, and therefore covirites- Curia, a meeting of Roman citizens. This god took on the third function of the divine Indo-European triad; However, in Rome, as elsewhere, the third divine function - service to the community - underwent a distinct fragmentation, natural in the conditions of the growing diversity and dynamism of public life.
As for the gods Janus and Vesta, their reunion with the ancient triad probably continues the Indo-European tradition. According to Varro, Janus belongs prima began, and to Jupiter - summa, height. So Jupiter is rex because prima cost less than summa: the first have priority in time, the second - in dignitas[dignity]. Janus’s place in space is entrance doors and gates. He rules the "beginning of the year" - this is his role in the time cycle. And in historical time his place is at the beginning of events: he was the first king of Latium and the ruler during the golden age: then people and gods lived together (Ovid."Fasti", I, 247-48). He is considered two-faced, bifrons:"any entrance is two places, two states, where you came from and where you entered" (Dumezil, R. 337). Its ancient origin is undeniable: both the Indo-Iranians and the Scandinavians also knew the “first gods.”
The name of the goddess Vesta comes from an Indo-European root meaning "burning", and the sacred hearth of Rome was a constant fire ignis Vestae. As Dumezil showed, the fact that all Roman temples were quadrangular at the base, except for the sanctuary of Vesta - round - is explained by the Indian teaching on the symbolism of Earth and Heaven: when laying the temple, it should be oriented along the four cardinal directions, but the monastery of Vesta is not a temple, templum A aedes sacra,all the power of the goddess is on earth. Vesta did not have any guises, except for the only one - fire ("Fasti", VI, 299) - another proof of her ancient origin and connection with tradition: initially, not a single Roman deity had a specific incarnation.
During the period of Etruscan domination, the former triad Jupiter-Mars-Quirinus was replaced by another triad, Jupiter-Juno-Minerva, established during the time of the Tarquins. Under Latin-Etruscan, and indeed Greek influences, the gods developed an appearance. Jupiter Optimus Maximus - this is how Jupiter will henceforth be called - appears before the Romans in the form of the Greek Zeus with some Etruscan features. New heroes - new rituals. For example, the custom of the Senate honoring a victorious commander - a triumph - takes place under the sign of Jupiter; during the celebrations, the triumphant is, as it were, personified as the supreme deity: crowned with a laurel wreath, in the vestments of the gods, he slowly rides on a chariot. Despite the presence in his temple of statues of other gods - Juno and Minerva, the supreme god is he, Jupiter, and they are turned to him vows or dedications.
J. Dumezil draws our attention to the fact that “Juno is the most important Roman goddess, and she is also the most mysterious” (p. 299). Her name, Juno, derived from a root meaning "life force". It has numerous functions; under her auspices, some holidays related to female fertility are held (like Lucina, she is called upon to assist in childbirth), holidays for the beginning of the lunar month, the “birth of the moon,” etc. In the Capitol, Juno was called Regina: this epithet reflected a stable tradition born during times of the Republic. In short, Juno was associated with a three-part Indo-European ideology: sacred power, military force, fertility. J. Dumezil sees the similarity of this plurality with the concept common to Vedic India and Iran - the concept of a goddess who combines and reconciles all three functions, i.e. with the social ideal of a woman.
The name of Minerva, patroness of arts and crafts, is probably of Italic origin from an Indo-European root. men, originally denoting all types of spiritual activity. The name Menrva (Minerva) came to the Romans from Etruria, where this goddess was a version of the Greek Pallas Athena.
The Capitoline triad does not continue any Roman tradition. Only Jupiter can be considered an Indo-European heritage. The association of Juno with Minerva occurred among the Etruscans; in the hierarchy of their pantheon there was also a divine triad, which, for example - and besides this we know nothing more about it - sanctified the foundation of temples (cf.: Servius. Ad Aen., 1, 422).
Eliade M. History of Faith and religious ideas. Volume two: from Gautama Buddha to the triumph of Christianity
Chapter XX. ROMAN RELIGION: FROM ORIGINS TO BACHANALIA (ca. 186 BC)
§161. Romulus and the Sacrifice
Ancient historians tell us that Rome was founded around 754 BC. Archaeological research confirms: core Urbs really began to be settled from the middle of the 8th century. BC. The founding myth of Rome and the legends of its early rulers are especially important for understanding Roman religion, but this mythological corpus equally reflects the ethnographic features and structure of early society. The formation of Rome was favored by the following circumstances: firstly, the concentration of migrant colonists of different origins; secondly, the fusion of two distinct, distinctive ethnic groups. In other words, the Latin ethnos that gave birth to the Roman people was the result of a mixture of the autochthonous population of the Neolithic era and the Indo-European conquerors who arrived from beyond the Alps. This primary synthesis of peoples became the basis of the Roman nation and culture, and the process of ethnic, cultural and religious assimilation and integration continued continuously until the end of the Empire.
According to legends recorded by ancient historians, the king of Alba, Numitor, was deposed by his brother Amulius. To eliminate rivals, Amulius exterminated the sons of Numitor. and forced his daughter Rhea Silvia to become a vestal virgin. But from her connection with Mars, she gave birth to twins, Romulus and Remus. According to legend, newborns abandoned on the banks of the Tiber were miraculously nursed by a she-wolf. They were later picked up by a shepherd, and his wife raised the boys. Over time, the matured Romulus and Remus were recognized by their grandfather, Numitor, and, having overthrown the usurper Amulius, the grandchildren returned the kingdom to their grandfather. Deciding to found a city in the places of their childhood, the brothers left Alba and turned to the gods for advice. Each chose a separate hill: Romulus - Palatine, and Remus - Aventine. Remus was the first to see six flying kites in the sky - the augur sign. Twice as many birds appeared to Romulus, he won the right to found a city from his brother and drew a furrow with a plow around the Palatine Hill: the waste land became a city wall for him, the furrow marked a ditch around city, and a plow taken out of the ground depicted the future city gates. Laughing at his brother’s invention, Rem overcame both the “wall” and the “ditch” in one leap. The angry Romulus rushed at his brother and laid him down on the spot, shouting: “So I will punish anyone who jumps over my walls!” .
It is clear that this is a myth in which - as in the legends of Sargon, Moses, Sirush and other heroes (see §§58, 105) - the traditional theme of the abandoned newborn baby can be traced. The she-wolf sent by Mars to save her sons is a harbinger of the future warlike inclinations of the Romans, and the feeding of a child left to the mercy of fate by a female wild beast is considered as the first initiation destined for any future hero. What follows is the young man's apprenticeship among the rough poor, who do not know about the origin of the pupil (the same thing happened with Sirusha). The theme of “warring brothers (twins)” and an unfairly offended father (grandfather) is also very common. Regarding the ritual of founding a city with a plow (sulcus primigenius), then its parallels are easy to find in other cultures. Accordingly, the enemy city was ritually leveled and a furrow was drawn around the ruins. In many traditions, the founding of the city was a revival of the creation myth. Sacrifice - Rem is a variant of the same primary cosmogonic sacrifice as Purusha, Ymir, Pangu (cf. §75). Sacrificed in the middle of Rome, Remus ensures a happy future for the City, i.e. the birth of the Roman people and the accession of Romulus to the throne *.
Now it is impossible to accurately date the events described above, and it is even more difficult to trace how long ago the change in mythological legends began and in what ways: we must trust only the data that is recorded in the works of the first historiographers that have reached us. But the archaic nature of these legends is undeniable, and their similarity with Indo-European cosmogonies has been convincingly proven. It is more instructive within the framework of our narrative to consider how the legend was imprinted in the minds of the Romans. “The horrific memory of the first bloody sacrifice to the guardian god of Rome will forever remain in the people's memory. More than seven centuries after the founding of Rome, Horace will still consider it as an original sin, the consequences of which - bloody fratricides - became the fatal cause of the fall of the city. Every time at critical moments in its history, Rome will look back in fear at its damned past. Just as when the city was founded there was no peace between it and its inhabitants, so the gods did not favor it.
§162. "Historicization" of Indo-European myths
According to legend, local cattle breeders flocked to Rome, and later fugitive slaves and vagabonds found refuge there. To attract women to the city, Romulus resorted to cunning: during a festival that brought together families from neighboring cities in the city, his warriors kidnapped young Sabine women and hid them in their homes. A long and inconclusive war ensued between Rome and the Sabines, ending with the Sabine women coming out and standing between their parents and their captors. After the parties were reconciled, many women remained in Rome for the rest of their lives. Romulus created a city political structure, formed a senate and a popular assembly, and one day disappeared forever during a severe thunderstorm. The people proclaimed him a god.
Despite the reputation of a fratricide, the personality of Romulus - the founder of the City and legislator, warrior and priest in one person - was exemplary for the Romans. Legends have also been preserved about the successors of Romulus. The first, the Sabine Numa, devoted himself to organizing religious communities and became famous for raising the cult Fides Publica, Piety, a goddess who governs relations both between people and between nations. The sixth ruler of Rome, Servius Tullius, became most famous, whose name went down in history thanks to his reorganization of Roman society, his administrative reforms and the expansion of the territory of the City.
The abundance of fantastic details: from those accompanying the founding of Rome to the expulsion by the Romans of the last king, the Etruscan Tarquinius the Proud, and the establishment of the Republic, has long made one doubt the reliability of these legends. It is likely that the memories of the authentic participants in the events and historians of antiquity, many times changed during their lifetime by the pulsation of collective memory, were later interpreted and presented in the light of a unique historiographical concept. Georges Dumézil showed in his works the exact direction in which the Romans “historicized” the plots of Indo-European mythology (cf. §63): there is reason to believe that the most ancient Roman mythology - the one that took shape even before the Greco-Etruscan influences - is set out in the first two books of Titus Livy's History.
Thus, commenting on the description of the war between the Romans and Sabines, J. Dumezil points out its amazing correspondence to the central episode Scandinavian mythology– the confrontation between two divine peoples, the Aesir and the Vanir. The first are grouped around the gods Odin and Thor. their main god, Odin is a king and a magician; Thor is the god of blacksmithing, and he is also the champion of heaven. The Vans have a different profile, they are the gods of fertility and prosperity. The Vanir resist the attacks of the Aesir, but, as Snorri Sturluson* writes, “first one side and then the other won.” Such mutual containment was achieved at the cost of great losses, and the Aesir and the Baths made peace. The supreme deities of the Vanir settle among the Aesir, in a sense they complement the virtues of the gods who rallied around Odin, bringing into their circle the fertility and wealth that they represent. Thus the merging of the two divine peoples is completed, and henceforth the Aesir and Vanir no longer conflict (§174).
It is possible (this opinion is shared by many researchers) that the war and the subsequent reconciliation of the parties were genuine historical events, and the merger of two peoples - autochthons and European conquerors - took place in reality. But the fact that “historical events” were conceived and reproduced according to a mythological script borrowed from Indo-European cultures is certainly a sign. The deep meaning of the amazing similarity between the Scandinavian mythological episode and the Roman historical tradition becomes clear when studying all the components of the Indo-European heritage in Ancient Rome. Let us first remember that the most ancient Roman triad: Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus, is an expression of a three-part ideology recorded among other Indo-European peoples: magic and supreme power (Jupiter, Varuna and Mithra, Odin), military function (Mars, Indra, Thor) , fertility and economic prosperity (Quirin, twins Nasatya, Freyr*). The triad of functions represents an ideal model for dividing Indo-European societies into three clearly defined classes: priests, warriors and pastoralists/plowmen (for example, let us refer only to the Indian castes of Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas; see §63). In Rome, the threefold social division exhausted itself quite early, but its memory can be discerned in the legendary tradition of the three tribes.
However, the core of the Indo-European heritage is clothed in a complex form of historical events. Two complementary functions: primacy in magic and primacy in legal matters of the Varuna-Mitra couple are revived in the two founders of Rome, Romulus and Tatius. The first, the frantic god-man, is under the protection of Jupiter Feretrius [Jupiter the Striking]. The second is the calm and wise founder sacra And legs[shrines and laws] – adherent of Fidesz Publica. They are followed by the unusually warlike ruler Tullius Hostilius and Ancus Marcius, during whose reign the City grows rich and trades with distant countries. The conclusion follows: the divine bearers of the three functions were embodied in “historical persons” - the first rulers of Rome. The original hierarchical formula - the divine trinity - now includes the concept of time and is arranged in chronological sequence.
J. Dumezil gave a number of examples of the “historicization” of Indo-European myths in Ancient Rome. This is the victory of the third Horace over the three Curiatii - an echo of the victory of Indra and Trita over the Three-Headed One or the legend of two cripples, Cocles ("Cyclops") and Scaevola ("Left-Handed") and their parallel - Scandinavian gods Crooked and One-Armed, i.e. Odin and Thor.
Comparative studies convincingly prove that the origins of the Roman religion should not be sought in “primitive,” archaic beliefs: in the era of the formation of the Roman people, the religious Indo-European tradition was still very stable. We are talking not only about mythology and rituals, but also about a well-developed and clearly formulated theology: just refer to J. Dumézil’s analysis of the terms maiestas, gravitas, mos, аugur, аugustis and others.
A close study of the “historicization” of Indo-European mythological themes and mythological-ritual scenarios is also important for another reason: this process reflects the main features of the religious spirit of the Romans: its non-metaphysical orientation and “realistic” mood. Indeed, many are amazed by the earnest - namely religious– the interest of the Romans in specific events of cosmic life and history; the importance they attach to amazing phenomena, which they explain as signs, and their unshakable faith in the power of rites and rituals.
The vitality of the Indo-European myths hidden in the ancient history of the City, in essence, is itself a phenomenon of religion that corresponds to the specific structure of Roman religiosity.
§163. Characters of the Roman religion
Non-metaphysical orientation and keen interest (of a religious nature!) in specific event- natural or historical - natural disasters or new turns of life affected the Romans’ views on anomalous phenomena very early on. They - like rural residents in general - were accustomed to the changes of seasons and their natural sequence, and any radical change in the course of nature was seen as an attack on the laws of their own life and - ultimately - as a danger of a return to chaos (we see the same thing in Ancient Egypt; see §25). Likewise, any anomaly: miracles, unusual phenomena (the birth of a child prodigy or freak, rain of stones, etc.) seemed to them a sign of a turning point in the attitude of the gods towards people. The dissatisfied gods are angry, the people who watched the miracle thought. They related anomalous phenomena to the mysterious hypostasis of the gods and were considered, in a sense, “negative theophanies.”
Yahweh also demonstrated his power through cosmic phenomena and historical events. And the prophets certainly commented on them and interpreted them as ominous omens (cf. §116 ff.). The true meaning of miracles was not clear to the Romans: they were clarified by professional priests. This gave rise to an abundance of prophetic rituals and awe - almost fear - of the Etruscan haruspices *, and later - the Sibylline Books * and other oracles. Divination consisted in the interpretation of visible signs (auspice*) or heard signs (omin). Only ministers could be interpreters supreme power and military leaders. However, the Romans reserved the right to reject omens (cf. inter aua: Cicero."On Fortune telling", I, 29). It happened that the consul - at the same time an augur - preferred not to look out of his tightly curtained litter-lecture, so as not to inadvertently see signs that would interfere with his plans ("On Fortune-telling", II, 77). After the prediction had been fully interpreted, the lustration procedure*: “negative theophanies” indicated the presence of filth, and it was necessary to get rid of it.
At first glance, an exorbitant fear of miracles and evil could be considered superstition. However, here we are faced with a type of religious experience: through an unusual phenomenon, people enter into dialogue with the gods. This attitude towards the sacred is a direct consequence of people’s religious assessment of natural phenomena, everyday activities, historical examples, i.e. concrete, private and immediate. Turning to ritual is the other side of this relationship. As the divine will manifests itself hic et nunc[here and now] in the form of a wide variety of signs and unusual phenomena, it is important to know which ritual will be the most effective. The need to recognize - even in the smallest detail - the characteristic manifestations of each divine being gave rise to a complex process of their personification. People tend to consider each of the epiphanies of the deity with the variety of its functions as a separate “person”.
In some cases, personifications are not distinguished as independent deities. The hypostases are revealed one after another, but always form a group. So, for example, agricultural work takes place under the auspices of several supernatural beings, each of them “managing” one aspect of this type of activity - from plowing and loosening the field to harvesting, transporting the crop and storing it for storage. Thus, Blessed Augustine jokingly notes (On the City of God, VII, 3), the Vatican and Fabulinia are invited to help the newborn emit the first cry and later utter the first words, Educa and Pauline - teach him to drink and eat, Abeon - take the first steps, and etc. All these supernatural beings are called upon, however, only to help with peasant labor or household chores. They do not have an expressive appearance, and their “power” is effective only to a limited extent; they do not have the status of gods.
The mediocre myth-making of the Romans and their indifference to metaphysics were balanced, as we will soon see, by their passionate interest in the concrete, the particular, the spontaneous. The religious Roman spirit is distinguished by pragmatism, interest in creative power and, almost always, the “sacralization” of communities - family, clan, homeland. The famous Roman discipline, loyalty to one's word (jides), devotion to the interests of the state, the elevation of law to the rank of religion - all this devalued the human personality: an individual meant something only insofar as he belonged to a community. Only later, under the influence of Greek philosophy and eastern teachings about salvation, the Romans realized that the person is divine. But this discovery and its serious consequences (cf. §206) affected mainly the urban population.
The social nature of Roman religiosity and, first of all, the importance of social connectedness, were defined among the Romans by the concept pietas. Despite the relationship of this word with the verb piare(calm down, erase a shameful stain, smooth out an omen), pietas simultaneously means scrupulous observance of rituals and respect for natural relationships (i.e. ordered according to regulations) between people. for son pietas means obedience to the father; disobedience is equated to an out-of-the-ordinary, monstrous act; the shame was atoned for by the death of the offender. Along with pietas to the gods existed pietas to members of your community, residents of your city, and finally, to all people. "Civil law" (jus gentium) prescribed the same attitude towards foreigners. This concept was most fully revealed “under the influence of Hellenic philosophy; it revealed with utmost clarity the idea humanitas: diligence towards humanity is the key to a true kinship between people, similar to that which unites members of the same clan - or residents of the same city - this feeling of solidarity, friendship or at least respect." "Humanistic" ideas of the 18th and 19th centuries were only adopted and developed - under the slogan of desacralization - the ancient concept of the Roman pietas.
§164. Household cults: penates, lares, manas
Until the end of the pagan period, in parallel with the public cult, which was led by professional priests dependent on the state, in Ancient Rome the cult of the domestic patron spirit was supported and preserved, performed by pater familias. In contrast to the public cult, which was subject to constant change, the conservative domestic cult, limited to intra-family events, remained almost unchanged over twelve centuries of Roman history. This form of religious worship undoubtedly dates back to the deepest antiquity and has common features with similar cults of many Indo-European peoples. The center of this cult, like that of the Aryans of India, was the home: a daily sacrifice in the form of food was placed there, flowers were offered three times a month, etc. These rituals were dedicated to the spirits of ancestors, their mythical incarnations - penates and laras, as well as the “double” spirit of each household member - his protective genius, genius. The most important family events: the birth of a child, marriage or death of a family member - required special rituals, which were invisibly guided by spirits and minor deities. Above we have already named the household spirits that surrounded the newborn. The religious wedding ceremony took place under the auspices of chthonic and domestic deities (Tellus, later Ceres), as well as the guardian of the marriage vow - Juno. It was accompanied by the laying of sacrifices and a ritual walk around the hearth. Funeral rites, performed on the ninth day after burial or cremation, developed into a scrupulously observed cult of the “patron spirits of deceased ancestors.” (divi parents). Two holidays were dedicated to these spirits - manas - February parentalia and May Lemuria. During parental city officials did not wear their insignia, churches were closed and the lights on the altars were extinguished, marriages were not celebrated (Ovid."Fasti", II, 533, 557-567). On these days, the deceased returned to earth and had a meal at their graves (ibid., II, 565-576); most of all, the ancestors were pacified by piety, pietas: as the Romans said, “the living please the souls of their fathers” (animas placare paternas; ibid., II, 533). In the old Roman calendar, February was the last month of the year - an uncertain, turning point in the off-season. At such a time, Chaos is reborn, norms are abolished, the dead return to earth, and it was in February that the Lupercalia(§165), collective rituals of purification that precede universal rebirth, New Year- ritual creation of the world.
In three days lemurius(9, 11 and 13 May) dead, lemurs (lemures; the etymology of the word is unknown), were revived to life and came to the homes of their descendants. To avoid their displeasure and prevent them from taking any of the living household members with them, the head of the family stuffed his mouth with black beans and, spitting them out, uttered the spell nine times: “With these beans I pay off for myself and all my household.” Then he scared away the dead by loudly knocking on a bronze vessel and again repeating nine times: “Mans of my fathers, get out of my house!” (ibid, V, 429-444). Such rituals of seeing off the dead who periodically return to earth are found everywhere among other peoples (cf.: Anthesteria, §123).
Let us remember another ritual involving manas, devotio, described in detail by Titus Livy (VIII, 9-10) in connection with the battle of the Romans with the Samnites. Seeing that his legions are retreating under the onslaught of enemies, the consul Decius sacrifices himself for the sake of victory. He repeats ritual spells after the high priest, calling on many gods, starting with Janus, Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus and ending with the mana spirits and the goddess Tellus. Decius condemns the enemy armies and himself along with them as a sacrifice to the mans and the Earth. In the episode of the death of Decius, the ritual devotio illustrates the archaic idea of human self-sacrifice - “death as a creation”: sacrificing oneself for the sake of the success of a future enterprise, in the case of Decius - military victory. Almost the entire pantheon of gods is summoned, but it is sacrifice to manam- and they give the life of Decius and the lives of the enemy troops - saves the Roman army.
We do not know the earliest ideas of the first inhabitants of Latium about the kingdom of the dead: it is clear that they are obscured by Greek and Etruscan myths. It is very likely that the archaic funerary mythology of the Latins continued the traditions of European Neolithic cultures. However, the concept of the afterlife Italian peasants underwent almost no changes, despite external influences - Greek, Etruscan and Hellenistic. On the contrary, starting from the 1st century. BC, hell described by Virgil in song VI of the Aeneid, the funerary symbolism of sarcophagi of the imperial era, Eastern and Pythagorean ideas of immortality in heaven will become especially popular in Rome and other cities of the Empire.
§165. Priests, augurs and sacred colleges
Public cult was in the hands of the highest officials of the state and members of religious brotherhoods. During the monarchy, the first place in the hierarchy of priests belonged to the king, and he was called the “sacred king”, Rex sacrorum. Scarce information has reached us about the performance of rituals, but it is known that in regions("house of the king") three types of rituals were practiced, dedicated to the cults of Jupiter (or Juno and Janus), Mars and the goddess of fertility named Ops Consina. Thus, J. Dumezil rightly notes, in the palace of the Roman king, three main divine functions converged - and were embodied in his person, the execution of which was entrusted to three flamines maiores(senior flamines). It can be assumed that even in the pre-Roman era, the king, rex, had its own college of priests. So the Vedic Raja had his own chaplain (purohita), and the Irish ri- their druids. However, unlike Vedic India and the Celts, where the priests were interchangeable, and the rite could therefore be led by any of them, the Roman religion tends to differentiate functions, and each minister of the cult, each priestly college and each brotherhood had their own spheres of activity.
According to the priestly hierarchy, after the king there were fifteen Flamins, first of all - flamines maiores: dedicated to Jupiter (flamines Dialis), Mars and Quirin. The word "flamin" is close in meaning to the Sanskrit word "brahman", but the flamins were not a caste and, moreover, did not constitute colleges. Each flamen was independent of anyone, connected only with the deity whose name it bore. The Flamin Institute undoubtedly has archaic roots. Flamins were required to wear ritual clothing and perform various vows. Thanks to the passion for ancient history of Aulus Gellius, we learned the vows of the flamen dialys: he cannot travel far from Rome; must not wear knots on his dress, and if a bound person enters the flamen's house, he must be freed from his bonds. Also, the flamen is forbidden to expose his body in the air, look at the army, or mount a horse. Nor is it fitting for him to touch anything that can defile, the dead, or anything that reminds of death (Noctes Atticae, X, 15; cf.: Plutarch. Quest. Rom. III).
The duties of the Flamins of Mars and the Flamins of Quirin were lighter, and the vows less severe. We do not know any cult activities flamen Martialis(flamina of Mars); he may have presided over the annual (October 15) horse sacrifice to Mars. It is known that flamen Quirinalis(flamin Quirin) presided over three ceremonies; two of them are summer consulates, August 21, and robigalia, April 25 - had something to do with grain crops.
Little is known about the College of Pontiffs. Only in the works of Cicero (De domo 135 and Har. resp. 12) is there indication that, in addition to the pontiffs themselves, it included river sacrorum and elder flamins. Contrary to the opinion of Kurt Latte, J. Dumezil proved the ancient origin of this priestly institution. Along with the flamen dialis, the pontiff played a complementary role in the king's sacred circle. The Flamins performed their duties, so to speak, “outside history”: they scrupulously adhered to the prescribed ceremony, but did not have the right to interpret the canon or make a decision in controversial cases. Despite their closeness to the gods of the sky, the Flamin Dialys were not required to express the will of the heavens: this responsibility lay with the augurs. On the contrary, the College of Pontiffs - and especially the Chief Pontiff, pontifex maximus, to which they obeyed - they did not depend on anyone and had complete freedom of action. The Chief Pontiff was present at any meetings where issues related to religion were decided; he led some rituals and monitored the exact execution of the ritual during the holidays. During the years of the Republic, it was the chief pontiff who “appointed the senior Flaminians, chose the Vestals and monitored the behavior of both, and for the Vestals he was also an adviser and representative of their interests.” It is therefore likely that the institutions of the senior flamenians and the pontiff are not an innovation of royal Rome. “The strict status of the former and the freedom of action of the latter were explained not by subsequent improvements, the evolution of their functions, but by the original range of special duties established in the pre-Roman era, which was reflected in the names of these positions. Finally, the pontiff quite naturally inherited the largest part of the religious duties once performed by kings.” .
At the college of pontiffs there were six Vestal Virgins, chosen by the chief pontiff for a thirty-year period from a group of girls aged six to ten years. The Vestals protected the people of Ancient Rome, maintaining the sacred fire, never letting it go out. The pledge of their sacred power was the vow of virginity they took; the vow-breaker was buried alive in an underground crypt, and her seducer was executed. As J. Dumézil notes, we have before us a sacred custom, “which has almost no analogues in other ethnic groups” (p. 576).
The College of Augurs also dates back to archaic times and - like the pontiffs - is completely independent. However, the details of Collegiate Discipline were kept secret; we only know that the augur was not called upon to predict the future. He just decided how much Right, fas, this or that undertaking - the choice of a place for worship or the appointment of a new clergyman. The Augur addressed God: "Si fas est..., send me such and such a sign!" However, already at the end of the period of the kingdoms, the Romans began to seek advice from other authorities - local or overseas (§167). Over time, Greek and Etruscan fortune-telling techniques spread in Rome; for example, haruspicy (examination of the entrails of sacrificial animals ) were entirely borrowed from the Etruscans.
Along with colleges, closed associations or “partnerships” (from sodalis,"comrade"), who specialized in one sacred ceremony. Twenty fetials, fetiales, consecrated the declaration of war and the conclusion of peace. Salii, salii, groups of twelve priests, "dancers" in honor of Mars and Quirinus, were the central participants in the annual celebrations in March and October, when, according to custom, war was declared or peace was concluded. Arvalskie brothers, fratres arvales, guarded the crops in the fields, and the brotherhood of Luperci celebrated every year on February 15 Lupercalia– . as part of ceremonies, usual for troubled times at the end of the year (cf. §§12, 22). On this day of purification, after the sacrifice of a goat in the cave Lupanar, naked Luperci in goatskin aprons began a cleansing run around the Palatine and lashed passers-by with goatskin whips. Women exposed themselves to lashes with the hope of offspring (Plutarch."Romulus", 21, 11-12 et seq.). This ritual, like the sacred ceremonies preceding the New Year, simultaneously promised purification and fertility. Here, of course, we are talking about an archaic ritual complex with rudiments of initiation like Mannerbunde*, but in pre-Republican times the meaning of the script seems to have been forgotten.
Both in communal and private cults, food was sacrificed to the gods: first fruits - grain, grapes, sweet wine, and, in addition, sacrificial animals (cattle, sheep, pigs and - on the Ides of October - horses). With the exception of the horse sacrifice, the sacrifices followed the same script. Sacrificial libations were served on a portable brazier placed in front of the temple altar, foculus, symbolizing the home of the one who made the sacrifice. The donor then symbolically killed the animal by running a special knife along its body, from head to tail. Once upon a time he himself performed the slaughter, but later, according to the classical rite, this was done victimarii, priests-victimaria. The parts of the animal intended for the gods: liver, lungs, heart and other organs were roasted on the altar. If the sacrifice was addressed to household gods, the meat was eaten by the donor and his household, and when performing a community cult, it was given to the priests.
§166. Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus and the Capitoline Triad
Unlike the ancient Greeks, who early formed and clearly defined their pantheon, the Romans in the early period of their history had a simple hierarchy, which included the archaic triad - Jupiter-Mars-Quirinus, as well as Janus and Vesta. Janus, as the patron god of all sorts of “beginnings,” was first on the list, and Vesta, the patroness of Ancient Rome, was at the rear. However, the ancient authors mentioned a number of deities - indigenous or borrowed from the Greeks and Etruscans, without telling us anything definite about their hierarchy or functions. Ancient authors sometimes made a distinction between di indigetes And divi novensiles, the first were considered folk (patrii) deities, the second - those who came later (Varro."On the Latin Language", V, 74; Virgil."Georgics", I, 498). We find the most valuable evidence from Titus Livy in his description devotio: next to the names of the four highest gods (Janus, Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus) Bellona and Lara (deities of war and earth) are mentioned, divi novensiles And di indigetes, and finally the gods of mana and Tellus (§164).
There is no doubt about the ancient origin of the Jupiter-Mars-Quirinus triad: the hierarchical duties of the three senior flayins of the novas clearly reflected the height of the position of those gods whose cult they affirmed. Jupiter is the king of the gods, the heavenly thunderer, the sacred principle and guarantor of just justice, universal fertility and cosmic order; he, however, does not interfere in wars: this is the prerogative of Mars (Mavors, Mamers) - the warrior god of all the Italian peoples. In some places, Mars was also revered as the god of peaceful activities; This is a fairly common tendency in the history of religions towards divine totalitarianism: the “imperial” focus of some gods on expanding the boundaries of their sphere of action. Quirin was distinguished by this more than all other gods. As we have already seen (§165), the flamen of Quirinus participated in only three ceremonies, those dedicated to agriculture. The etymology of the name of this god leads to the same root as the word viri, and therefore covirites- Curia, a meeting of Roman citizens. This god took on the third function of the divine Indo-European triad; However, in Rome, as elsewhere, the third divine function - service to the community - underwent a distinct fragmentation, natural in the conditions of the growing diversity and dynamism of public life.
As for the gods Janus and Vesta, their reunion with the ancient triad probably continues the Indo-European tradition. According to Varro, Janus belongs prima began, and to Jupiter - summa, height. Thus Jupiter is rex because prima cost less than summa: the first have priority in time, the second - in dignitas[dignity]. Janus's place in space is entrance doors and gates. He rules the "beginning of the year" - this is his role in the time cycle. And in historical time his place is at the beginning of events: he was the first king of Latium and the ruler during the golden age: then people and gods lived together (Ovid."Fasty", I, 247-48). He is considered two-faced bifrons:"any entrance is two places, two states, where you came from and where you entered" (Dumezil, R. 337). Its ancient origin is undeniable: both the Indo-Iranians and the Scandinavians also knew the “first gods.”
The name of the goddess Vesta comes from an Indo-European root meaning "burning", and the sacred hearth of Rome was a constant fire ignis Vestae. As Dumezil showed, the fact that all Roman temples were quadrangular at the base, except for the sanctuary of Vesta - round - is explained by the Indian teaching on the symbolism of Earth and Heaven: when laying the temple, it should be oriented along the four cardinal directions, but the monastery of Vesta is not a temple, templum A aedes sacra, all the power of the goddess is on earth. Vesta did not have any guises, except for the only one - fire ("Fasti", VI, 299) - another proof of her ancient origin and connection with tradition: initially, not a single Roman deity had a specific incarnation.
During the period of Etruscan domination, the former triad Jupiter-Mars-Quirinus was replaced by another triad, Jupiter-Juno-Minerva, established during the time of the Tarquins. Under Latin-Etruscan, and indeed Greek influences, the gods developed an appearance. Jupiter Optimus Maximus - this is how Jupiter will henceforth be called - appears before the Romans in the form of the Greek Zeus with some Etruscan features. New heroes - new rituals. For example, the custom of the Senate honoring a victorious commander - a triumph - takes place under the sign of Jupiter; During the celebrations, the triumphant is, as it were, personified into the supreme deity: crowned with a laurel wreath, in the attire of the gods, he slowly rides in a chariot. Despite the presence in his temple of statues of other gods - Juno and Minerva, the supreme god is he, Jupiter, and vows or dedications are addressed to him.
J. Dumezil draws our attention to the fact that “Juno is the most important Roman goddess, and she is also the most mysterious” (p. 299). Her name, Juno, derived from a root meaning "life force". It has numerous functions; under her auspices, some holidays related to female fertility are held (like Lucina, she is called upon to assist in obstetrics), holidays for the beginning of the lunar month, the “birth of the moon,” etc. In the Capitol, Juno was called Regina: this epithet reflected a strong tradition born during the Republic. In short, Juno was associated with a three-part Indo-European ideology: sacred power, military force, fertility. J. Dumezil sees the similarity of this multiplicity with the concept common to Vedic India and Iran - the concept of a goddess who combines and reconciles all three functions, i.e. with the social ideal of woman.
The name of Minerva, patroness of arts and crafts, is probably of Italic origin from an Indo-European root. men, originally denoting all types of spiritual activity. The name Menrva (Minerva) came to the Romans from Etruria, where this goddess was a version of the Greek Pallas Athena.
The Capitoline triad does not continue any Roman tradition. Only Jupiter can be considered an Indo-European heritage. The association of Juno with Minerva occurred among the Etruscans; in the hierarchy of their pantheon there was also a divine triad, which, for example - and besides this we know nothing more about it - sanctified the foundation of temples (cf.: Servius. Ad Aen., 1, 422).
§167. Etruscans: riddles and hypotheses
Relations between the Romans and Etruscans have developed since time immemorial, although it is difficult to draw definitive conclusions about the relationship between the cultures of these two peoples. We do not know the language of the Etruscans, but archaeological evidence (burials, frescoes, statues, household items) convinces us that it was a highly developed civilization. On the other hand, the historians of antiquity did not leave us such detailed descriptions their religions, cultures and histories, as in the case of the Thracians, Celts or Germans. We find more or less serious data about some aspects of the Etruscan religion in Latin authors only from the 1st century. BC, when the original heritage of the Etruscans was significantly obscured by Hellenistic influences. Finally, the question of even the origin of the Etruscans is still unclear, which affects the correctness of comparative conclusions.
According to Herodotus (I, 94), the Etruscans descended from the Lydians, and indeed, the Asian roots of the Etruscans are confirmed by the inscriptions found on Lemnos. However, the forms of Etruscan culture that have reached us do not reflect the realities generally accepted in Asia. What is certain is that there really was a merging of the cultures of the overseas conquerors and the more developed civilization of the indigenous inhabitants of the valleys of the Po and Tiber rivers - the Etruscans, inhabitants of the state of Etruria - and that they stood at a higher stage of development than the Romans. They had a powerful fleet and extensive trade connections, they knew how to smelt iron and built well-fortified cities. Politically, it was a federation of city-states; there were twelve of them in the metropolis. The population of the metropolis, in addition to the Etruscans, included the Umbrians, Veneti, Ligurians and other Italic peoples.
Etruscan art and religion early experienced Greek influence. Etruscan god Fufluns appears in the guise of Dionysus, the goddess Semla - in the guise of Semele, and Areata - Ariadne. There is Artumes (Artemis) and Aplu (Apollo). A number of native Etruscan deities bear Latin names: Uni (Juno), Netuns (Neptune), Maris (Mars), Satres (Saturn). The name of one of the mythical heroes, Mastarna (eth.: maestrna), comes from the Latin word master. The assimilation of Roman deities with the Greek gods followed the Etruscan example: Juno, Minerva, Neptune came to be called Hera, Athena, Poseidon, as did the Etruscan Uni, Menrva and Netune. In short, the culture and, to a greater extent, the religion of the Etruscans are characterized by an early fusion with Italic and Greek elements. Of course, we are talking only about the earliest synthesis, since the Etruscan genius, first of all, develops ideas born of his own inspiration. We know almost nothing about the mythology and theology of the Etruscans. And we don’t even risk once again referring to the apparent exception - the myth of Hercules (Hercules): despite all the efforts of J. Bayeux, at the moment it is only known that this hero was incredibly popular in Etruria, was the protagonist of many myths - and their the plots were very different from the Greek ones - and had signs of eastern origin (Melkart). As for Etruscan theology, it is hardly possible to restore it, having scanty late information about the Etruscan “books”: they record only various methods of fortune-telling.
In the absence of written monuments, researchers turned to a scrupulous analysis of archaeological materials. The archaic structure of the Etruscan cult of the dead and chthonic goddesses has similarities with the burials and funerary statues of Malta, Sicily and the Aegean islands (cf. §34). The Etruscan necropolises - truly cities of the dead - rose not far from their settlements, and the graves were richly decorated: men's graves with military weapons, women's graves with precious jewelry. They were performed at the graves human sacrifice- a custom that later gave rise to gladiator fights. The gravestone inscription indicated only the maternal kinship of the deceased. The man's grave was decorated with a phallic symbol; the grave of a woman - the embodiment of a home, a family - was crowned with a crypt in the shape of a house. Bachofen mentioned in this connection the Etruscan “matriarchy”; whether it was true or not, one thing is indisputable: in Etruscan society, women occupied a high position, and at feasts their place at the table was next to men. Greek authors were surprised that the wives of the Etruscans enjoyed such freedom, which in Greece was only allowed to hetaera. Etruscan women appeared before men without a veil; on the tombstone frescoes they are depicted in transparent clothes: they encourage the wrestling of naked athletes with shouts and gestures.
At the end of the republic, the Romans knew: the Etruscan priests kept the “books” sent to them from above by supernatural mythical heroes - the nymph Vegoa and the child prophet Tagus, who was found in a fresh furrow. According to legend, the amazing boy was immediately surrounded by a crowd, and people wrote down hitherto unknown wisdom from his lips, later called the doctrine of haruspices, haruspicinae disciplina. Mythical motif of revelation in the form of a “holy book”, secret knowledge, given to people a supernatural being, was known everywhere - from Mesopotamia and Egypt to medieval India and Tibet. It became a popular script of the Hellenistic era. Thug's epiphany as puer aeternus[the eternal child] evokes thoughts of Hermeticism (see §209), which does not necessarily require alchemical, i.e. later, interpretation of the Etruscan tradition. What is important for us is that at the beginning of the 1st century. BC. it was known: the Etruscans kept in their books, libri, some supernatural revelations. These books can be divided into libri fulgurales, books about lightning, libri rituales, books of rituals (they are connected with acherontici) And libri haruspicini, books of haruspices (added libri fatales, books of destinies) * .
The doctrine of lightning became known from the works of Seneca and Pliny and is a set of interpretations of thunderstorm phenomena compiled for each day of the year. This means that the sky, divided into sixteen segments, hides a secret language transmitted to the earth in the form of meteorological phenomena. The sign of lightning, for example, was deciphered depending on which celestial segment it appeared in and where it ended. Different - eleven in number - configurations of lightning were attributed to different gods. Each lightning carried a divine message in a secret language, understandable only to special priests, the haruspices. Some authors see a connection between this tradition and the teachings of the Chaldeans. But in the form that has come down to us, the doctrine of lightning bears traces of Hellenistic science - from Pseudo-Aristotle’s “Meteorologica” to the concept of “Chaldean magicians”. Later, these influences changed the language of the book, adapting it to modern Zeitgeist. But be that as it may, the core of this teaching, namely the unity of the macro- and microcosm, remains archaic.
Haruspices - the interpretation of signs read from the internal organs of sacrificial animals - are also based on the combination of three planes of existence: divine, cosmic and human. Based on the outlines of different parts of the interior, the decisions of the gods are read and, therefore, the future development of historical events is predicted. On a bronze model of a sheep's liver, discovered in 1877 in Piacenza, there is an engraving - traces of division into sections with the names of about forty deities. This model simultaneously represents the structure of the world and the spheres of influence of the divine pantheon.
Based on the doctrine of the unity of macro- and microcosm, the Etruscan concept of the course of history was formed. According to libri fatales, human life unfolds in twelve seven years, hebdomades; Having crossed the twelfth mark, people “lose their spirit”, and the gods no longer give them any signs. Peoples and states - Etruria and Rome - also have an age limit limited by the same cosmic laws. Because of this belief in strict cosmic and existential determinism, many considered the Etruscans to be pessimists. However, this is an archaic concept, shared by many traditional societies: man is inextricably linked with the main rhythms of Creation, since any existence - cosmic, historical, human ~ repeats, each in its own way, an exemplary model, manifested in the form of a cyclical trajectory of Life.
It is very difficult to reconstruct Etruscan beliefs about death and the afterlife. From the 4th century pictures of hell began to be depicted on tombstones, not similar to those depicted by the Greeks, but inspired by them. This is a death-journey on horseback or in chariot; the appearance of the deceased to a group of people in another world, perhaps ancestors; a feast in anticipation of the arrival of the deceased, led by Hades and Persephone, who are called differently here - Aita And Fersitition. Demonology is also presented here, which has no Greek parallels. The main character, Harun, despite his Greek name, is of original Etruscan origin. “His hooked nose resembles a bird of prey, his ears are like those of a horse, his teeth seem to clang in a cruel grin - just like you see an animal in a fighting stance on the monument.” Having captured his victim, Harun accompanies him on a journey to Kingdom of the Dead, at the entrance to which - judging by the scenes on the walls of the crypt - his mission as a guide ends, and the deceased enters the afterlife that promises him joy.
Few fragments from the “Acheront books” that have reached us, libri acherontici, allow us only to speculate about the similarity of this source with the Egyptian “Book of the Dead”. According to the Christian writer Arnobius (IV century), “the Acherontic books of the Etruscans promised the soul holiness and immortality in the future - if the blood of animals was shed, sacrificing them to the deities” (Adversus Nationses, II, 62). We find important information from Serbius: after a certain ritual of sacrifice, souls turn into gods, and now they are depicted in the form of animals, animales so that they remember their origins (Ad Aen., III, 168). This deification of the soul after a bloody ritual can be seen either as an archaic concept or as a sacramental sacrifice; similar to the initiation in the Mithraic mysteries (cf. §217). One way or another, the “deification of the soul” adds a new touch to Etruscan eschatology.
If we do not know the hidden meaning of the religious thinking of the Etruscans, then the respect of Ancient Rome for their fortune-telling methods, for orientation- the structure of their cities and sacred buildings - indicates the cosmological structure of Etruscan theology and, perhaps, explains the efforts of the Etruscans to penetrate the mystery of historical time. It is very likely that their ideas contributed to the subsequent flowering of Roman religion.
§168. Crises and disasters: from the rule of the Gauls to the Second Punic War
Some time after the expulsion of the last Etruscan king from Ancient Rome and the establishment of the republic, approx. in 496 BC, at the foot of the Aventine Hill, a temple of the new divine triad of Ceres-Liber-Libera was erected. The political changes that took place in Rome could have played a significant role in the establishment of this cult of the three fertility deities: for a long time, at the site of the construction of a new temple, the Roman plebs held celebrations in honor of the agrarian cult. The name of the god Liber is apparently derived from an Indo-European root leudh, those. "pertaining to germination; one who provides shoots and harvest." According to St. Augustine (Civ. dei, VII 3), the Liber-Libera couple favored universal reproduction and fertility by “releasing” the seed during intercourse (ibid., VII 9). In some areas of Italy there are celebrations in honor of these gods, liberals(March 17), were accompanied by a violation of all decency: a solemn procession with a phallus, which the most chaste Roman matrons were supposed to crown with flowers, obscenities in conversation and address, etc. (Civ. dei, VII, 21). However, this triad merged very early (interpretatio graeca!) with the trinity of gods Demeter, Dionysus (Bacchus) and Persephone (Proserpina). Widely famous under the name of Bacchus, Liber experienced an extraordinary fate after the development of the Dionysian cult (see below).
Rome was familiar with the Greek gods already in the 6th century. BC, under the Etruscan rulers. However, from the beginning of the Republic, the assimilation of Greek deities occurs very quickly: Dioscuri - ca. 499, Mercury - approx. 495, Apollo - ca. 431 BC (during the plague epidemic he became a healing god - the first Greek god included in the Roman pantheon under his own name). Venus - at first her name was associated only with magical charm - was identified with the Greek Aphrodite; under the influence of the Trojan myth, the role and function of this goddess later changed. The assimilation of Latin and Italic deities is proceeding in the same direction. Diana came to Rome from Alba Longa and later became identified with Artemis. Approx. in 396, a ceremony was held to invite Juno Regina, the patron goddess of the city of Veii, to Rome. There is a known passage from Titus Livy (V, 21, 3-22) with a description of the ritual evocatio, appeals to the gods: dictator Camillus addresses the patron goddess of the besieged Etruscan city: “Oh Juno Regina! You are now the patron of this city - Veii. It’s better to go with us, the future victors, for this city is about to be ours, and therefore yours , and you will receive a temple worthy of your greatness!" The inhabitants of the besieged city “did not know that even their own gods and soothsayers, as well as foreign oracles, had already betrayed them, that some gods were already waiting for their share of the spoils, while others were looking at the new temples and monasteries promised to them in enemy cities; and for the Veyans themselves, this day will be the last...".
Invasion of the Celts in the first quarter of the 4th century. broke the ties between the Romans and Hellenic culture. The sack of Rome (c. 390 BC) was so merciless that many inhabitants planned to leave the ruins and move to Veii. Like Egypt after the Hyksos raid (cf. §30), so the burned City and its inhabitants lost faith in their historical destiny. Only after the victory of Sentinum in 295 BC. Rome and Italy were freed from Gallic rule. Relations with the Greek world were restored, and the Romans resumed their policy of conquest. At the end of the 3rd century. BC. Rome became the most powerful state in Italy. From now on, political changes will painfully, sometimes mercilessly, hit the religious institutions of Rome for the people who were given the opportunity to read divine epiphanies in the events of their history, military victories and defeats acquired a high religious meaning.
A little later, when the existence of the Roman state was at stake in the Second Punic War, profound changes took place in religion. Rome turned to all the gods: there was no time to choose which god was better. The Haruspex and the Sibylline Books showed that the reasons for the military defeat lay in violations of the ritual order. According to the instructions of the Sibylline Books, the Senate promulgated saving measures: sacrifices - even human ones, lustrations, new ceremonies and processions. The defeat at Cannae in 216, further aggravated by terrible omens and the blasphemous fornication of two Vestal Virgins, forced the Senate to send Fabius Pictor for advice to the oracle at Delphi. Meanwhile, in Rome, according to the instructions of the Sibylline Books, human casualties: a Greek and a Greek woman were buried alive, as well as a Gaul and his fellow tribesman (Titus Livius, XXII, 57, 6). This was probably a tribute to the archaic rite of “death as creation” *.
Finally, approx. in 205-204 BC, in the name of the coming victory over Hannibal, following the instructions of the Sibylline Books, Rome introduced into its pantheon the first deity of Asian origin - Cybele, the Great Mother of Pessinunt (Titus Livy, XXIX, 10 ff). A squadron of Roman ships transported a black meteorite stone - a symbol of this goddess - to Rome from Pergamon. Greeted in Ostia by the best people of the city, the symbol of Cybele was installed in the temple of her name on the Palatine. However, the orgiastic nature of this cult and, above all, the presence of eunuch priests openly contradicted the strict morals of the Romans. The Senate immediately regulated the rituals of the cult of Cybele: sacrifices were allowed strictly within the temple - the exception was the annual procession with a black stone to the bath; the Anatolian ritual of sacrifice was banned by the Romans; the cult was performed by a priest, a priestess and several junior servants - but in no case by the Romans or their slaves. The official Roman cult of the goddess was overseen by the city praetor.
OK. 204 BC The Senate nevertheless agreed to the organization of the community of the first Asian deity, which united almost exclusively patricians; celebrations in honor of Cybele were limited exclusively to feasts. So, the inclusion of Cybele in the pantheon of Roman gods was the work of the aristocracy: the patricians believed that Rome was called upon to play a leading role in the East. However, the presence of Cybele in the religion of the Romans did not lead to the development of this political idea, and the enrichment of Rome with Eastern cults occurred a century later: after the Second Punic War, Asian deities became, of course, doubly attractive to the destroyed and suffering Rome. And here the traditional Roman duality comes to the fore: reluctance to allow the dominance of foreign deities and at the same time fear of losing their favor. However, it was necessary to take into account the consequences of both two wars and a brilliant victory. The population of Rome was replenished by numerous refugees from different regions of Italy and foreign slaves; in addition, part of the population began to gradually move away from traditional religion. Starting from the 4th century. BC, in Rome, as throughout the Mediterranean, the need for personal religious experience grew. Such experience was available only in closed prayer houses or in "mystery religions", i.e. in prohibited gatherings hiding from government surveillance. It was for this reason that the Senate had previously prohibited the participation of Roman citizens and even their slaves in the Anatolian cult of Cybele.
Approx. in 186 BC The authorities of Rome were surprised and indignant when they discovered rampant bacchanalia and nightly “orgiastic mysteries” in the city. For a long time - since the times of Hellenism - the cult of Dionysius was well known in the Mediterranean (see §206), and after the Roman conquest Magna Graecia esoteric societies of mystics began to quickly arise on the peninsula, especially in Campania: it was from there that the clairvoyant priestess was from, who transmitted to Rome a secret cult, modified according to her instructions and containing some rites of a mystical nature. After her exposure and the public statement of the consul, the investigation revealed the scale and orgiastic nature of this cult. The adherents - there were over seven thousand of them - were accused of involvement in vile violations of order: they allegedly not only swore an oath to maintain criminal silence about their activities, but also engaged in pederasty, plotted murders for the purpose of robbery, etc. According to the description of Titus Livy (XXXIX, 13, 12), during orgies “the men, like madmen, swayed with their whole bodies and repeated prophecies”; the women - “with their hair flowing in the manner of bacchantes” - rushed to the Tiber, “waving burning torches,” dipped them into the water and took them out still burning, because they were filled with sulfur and lime.”
Some of these accusations were reminiscent of later clichés found in heresy and witch trials. The speed and mercilessness of the trial, the cruelty of the punishments - several thousand executions throughout the country - reveal the political subtext of this trial: the authorities are afraid of secret societies, fearing conspiracies for a coup. Of course, they did not end the Bacchic cult, but a ban was imposed on the participation of Roman citizens in it. For any Bacchic ceremony with no more than five participants, a special permit from the Senate is now issued. All religious buildings were demolished, religious objects were destroyed, except those that had “at least some sign of holiness.”
These panic measures showed everyone how suspicious the Senate was of any religious organizations that escaped its eye. The Senate bill was passed once and for all, Senatus Consultum, about the ban on bacchanalia, three centuries later it still served as a basis for the persecution of Christians.
One of the few most ancient gods of Rome is Mars. Over time, he turned from a peace-loving god of fertility into a warlike god of War.
In mythology, it is believed that Mars accompanied warriors to war, accepting gifts from them in the form of sacrifices. During battles, he appeared on the field accompanied by the goddess Bellona. After the war was won, he was presented with a gift in the form of a horse sacrifice. This god had some features compared to others - for example, he had 3 lives. He was revered much more than others.
It is worth adding to all that has been said that it was applied in the form of symbolism on coins, products, shields, and other things that took place in everyday life. By the way, this god is considered the ancestor of Rome, the current capital of Italy. He also had sons - Romulus and Remus. The Vestal Virgin Rhea Silvia gave birth to twins.
Mars is the god of war in Roman mythology, the oldest deity of Italy and Rome, who was part of the triad of gods that originally headed the Roman pantheon - Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. In ancient times he was considered the god of fertility and vegetation, but gradually acquired a warlike character.
Mars accompanied warriors going to war, accepted sacrificial gifts before battle and appeared on the battlefield accompanied by the goddess of war Bellona. The symbol of Mars was a spear kept in the royal palace - regin; Twelve shields were also kept there, one of which, according to legend, fell from the sky as a guarantee of the invincibility of the Romans, and the rest were one hundred skillful copies designed to confuse the kidnappers.
The commander, going to war, called on Mars, setting in motion the shields and spears hanging in the palace. At the end of hostilities, a horse from the quadriga that won the race was sacrificed to the god of war.
Mars enjoyed great popularity during the period of the Republic: his images were minted on coins, and the god was awarded the epithets winner, fighter, expander of the empire, pacifier. In the western Roman provinces, the main gods of territorial and tribal communities were associated with the image of Mars. This is why some researchers have suggested that early Roman ideas about Mars as a supreme deity continued to live on in folk traditions.
God of War Mars in ancient greek mythology corresponds to the god Ares. But unlike the Greek Ares, Mars was revered in Rome above other gods, perhaps because, according to legend, his sons Remus and Romulus founded this city.
Mars- an ancient Roman god, was considered one of the indigenous Italian deities, who was worshiped throughout the Italian Peninsula, and later in the provinces, where the cult of similar native deities merged with the cult of the national Italian god. First of all, Mars was a god spring, as indicated by his holidays, which fell in the spring and especially in the month of March, named after him. There were holidays in honor of Mars in other warm seasons, that is, in summer and autumn. The veneration of Mars continued, therefore, for a whole 8 months, which, in their importance compared with the short and useless winter season for the villager, amounted to essentially year. As a representative of the plant force of nature, Mars was considered the god of the year, annual prosperity. This explains his connection with the goddess Anna, who gave bread to the hungry plebeians.
12 shields of Mars - a symbolic image of the 12th month of the year. As a deity born to combat cold and the dead forces of nature, Mars receives the attributes of the god of war. He must fight the demons of winter and from his very birth he is armed for the fight. In this regard, there are shields and the military nature of the religious movements of the Salii. Just during the 8 warm months dedicated to Mars, military operations took place, ending on the day of the last festival.
The furious and indomitable god of war, Mars was revered as the father of the great and warlike Roman people, whose glory began with the founder of the city of Rome - Romulus. Thanks to the patronage of the mighty god of war, the Romans won victories over neighboring tribes, and then over other peoples. Mars had two nicknames - Mars Marching into Battle and Mars the Spear. After the death of Romulus and his deification, the god Quirinus appeared, into whom Romulus turned, thus becoming the double of Mars.
Mars was once feared. The bright reddish star was named after the ancient Roman god of war, and was believed to bring disaster and suffering. Nowadays, everyone knows that Mars is not a STAR, but one of the most interesting planets in the SOLAR SYSTEM. In 1877, astronomers began to suspect that there was or was intelligent life on Mars.
The conditions for this seemed favorable. True, Mars is smaller than Earth and 1.5 times farther from the Sun. But his day is only 37 minutes longer. On Mars, as on Earth, the seasons change and in the summer the polar ice melts at the poles. There is also an atmosphere, although more rarefied than on Earth, with less oxygen and water vapor. Mars receives less light and heat than Earth, but still enough for life to develop. But which one? Now scientists believe that nothing but mosses and lichens can exist on Mars: there is still too little water and heat there. And, of course, there are no Martians there in our time. But there are many mysterious things on Mars.
For example, “channels” are incomprehensible dark lines crossing the planet, some up to 100 km wide. Most likely, these are just depressions and breaks in the soil. But maybe these are artificial structures? In addition, they change their color at different times of the year, which means there is vegetation on Mars.
Even more amazing are the satellites of Mars - Phobos and Deimos. They are very small: their diameters are 8 and 15 km. They are located quite close to the planet: Phobos is at a distance of 9380 km. It turned out that they move around Mars in the same way as artificial satellites would move. That is why some scientists have suggested that in ancient times there were conditions on Mars for the existence of intelligent beings, who created these satellites. And now the planet is cooling, and life on it is dying out. Where did the Martians go? One can only guess about this, but it is possible that they moved to other worlds with the help of the artificial satellites Phobos and Deimos.
All this, of course, is just HYPOTHESES. It is still as difficult to refute them as it is to prove them. Powerful telescopes are aimed at Mars. It is especially convenient to study it when the “great confrontation” occurs. This happens once every 15-17 years. The last opposition of Mars was in 1956. The next one will be in 1971. Who knows, maybe then scientists will be able to discover something that will help solve Martian mysteries.
Sources: smexota.net, aforizmu.com, www.wikiznanie.ru, www.mifologija.ru, www.what-who.com
Unlike the ancient Greeks, who early formed and clearly defined their pantheon, the Romans in the early period of their history had a simple hierarchy, which included the archaic triad - Jupiter-Mars-Quirinus, as well as Janus and Vesta. Janus, as the patron god of all sorts of “beginnings,” was first on the list, and Vesta, the patroness of Ancient Rome, was at the rear. However, the ancient authors mentioned a number of deities - indigenous or borrowed from the Greeks and Etruscans, without telling us anything definite about their hierarchy or functions. Ancient authors sometimes made a distinction between di indigetes And divi novensiles, the first were considered folk (patrii) deities, the second - those who came later (Varro."On the Latin Language", V, 74; Virgil."Georgics", I, 498). We find the most valuable evidence from Titus Livy in his description devotio: next to the names of the four highest gods (Janus, Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus) Bellona and Lara (deities of war and earth) are mentioned, divi novensiles And di indigetes, and finally the gods of mana and Tellus (§ 164).
There is no doubt about the ancient origin of the Jupiter-Mars-Quirinus triad: the hierarchical duties of the three senior flayins of the novas clearly reflected the height of the position of those gods whose cult they affirmed. Jupiter is the king of the gods, the heavenly thunderer, the sacred principle and guarantor of just justice, universal fertility and cosmic order; he, however, does not interfere in wars: this is the prerogative of Mars (Mavors, Mamers) - the warrior god of all the Italian peoples. In some places, Mars was also revered as the god of peaceful activities; This is a fairly common tendency in the history of religions towards divine totalitarianism: the “imperial” focus of some gods on expanding the boundaries of their sphere of action. Quirin was distinguished by this more than all other gods. As we have already seen (§ 165), the flamen of Quirinus participated in only three ceremonies, those dedicated to agriculture. The etymology of the name of this god leads to the same root as the word viri, and therefore covirites- Curia, a meeting of Roman citizens. This god took on the third function of the divine Indo-European triad; However, in Rome, as elsewhere, the third divine function - service to the community - underwent a distinct fragmentation, natural in the conditions of the growing diversity and dynamism of public life.
As for the gods Janus and Vesta, their reunion with the ancient triad probably continues the Indo-European tradition. According to Varro, Janus belongs prima began, and to Jupiter - summa, height. So Jupiter is rex because prima cost less than summa: the first have priority in time, the second - in dignitas[dignity]. Janus's place in space is entrance doors and gates. He rules the "beginning of the year" - this is his role in the time cycle. And in historical time his place is at the beginning of events: he was the first king of Latium and the ruler during the golden age: then people and gods lived together (Ovid."Fasts", I, 247-48). He is considered two-faced bifrons:"any entrance is two places, two states, where you came from and where you entered" (Dumezil, R. 337). Its ancient origin is undeniable: both the Indo-Iranians and the Scandinavians also knew the “first gods.”
The name of the goddess Vesta comes from an Indo-European root meaning "burning", and the sacred hearth of Rome was a constant fire ignis Vestae. As Dumezil showed, the fact that all Roman temples were quadrangular at the base, except for the sanctuary of Vesta - round - is explained by the Indian teaching on the symbolism of Earth and Heaven: when laying the temple, it should be oriented along the four cardinal directions, but the monastery of Vesta is not a temple, templum A aedes sacra, all the power of the goddess is on earth. Vesta did not have any guises, except for the only one - fire ("Fasti", VI, 299) - another proof of her ancient origin and connection with tradition: initially, not a single Roman deity had a specific incarnation.
During the period of Etruscan domination, the former triad Jupiter-Mars-Quirinus was replaced by another triad, Jupiter-Juno-Minerva, established during the time of the Tarquins. Under Latin-Etruscan, and indeed Greek influences, the gods developed an appearance. Jupiter Optimus Maximus - this is how Jupiter will henceforth be called - appears before the Romans in the form of the Greek Zeus with some Etruscan features. New heroes - new rituals. For example, the custom of the Senate honoring a victorious commander - a triumph - takes place under the sign of Jupiter; During the celebrations, the triumphant is, as it were, personified into the supreme deity: crowned with a laurel wreath, in the attire of the gods, he slowly rides in a chariot. Despite the presence in his temple of statues of other gods - Juno and Minerva, the supreme god is he, Jupiter, and vows or dedications are addressed to him.
J. Dumezil draws our attention to the fact that “Juno is the most important Roman goddess, and she is also the most mysterious” (p. 299). Her name, Juno, derived from a root meaning "life force". It has numerous functions; under her auspices, some holidays related to female fertility are held (like Lucina, she is called upon to assist in childbirth), holidays for the beginning of the lunar month, the “birth of the moon,” etc. In the Capitol, Juno was called Regina: this epithet reflected a stable tradition born during times of the Republic. In short, Juno was associated with a three-part Indo-European ideology: sacred power, military force, fertility. J. Dumezil sees the similarity of this plurality with the concept common to Vedic India and Iran - the concept of a goddess who combines and reconciles all three functions, i.e. with the social ideal of a woman.
The name of Minerva, patroness of arts and crafts, is probably of Italic origin from an Indo-European root. men, originally denoting all types of spiritual activity. The name Menrva (Minerva) came to the Romans from Etruria, where this goddess was a version of the Greek Pallas Athena.
The Capitoline triad does not continue any Roman tradition. Only Jupiter can be considered an Indo-European heritage. The association of Juno with Minerva occurred among the Etruscans; in the hierarchy of their pantheon there was also a divine triad, which, for example - and besides this we know nothing more about it - sanctified the foundation of temples (cf.: Servius. Ad Aen., 1, 422).
§ 167. Etruscans: riddles and hypotheses
Relations between the Romans and Etruscans have developed since time immemorial, although it is difficult to draw definitive conclusions about the relationship between the cultures of these two peoples. We do not know the language of the Etruscans, but archaeological evidence (burials, frescoes, statues, household items) convinces us that it was a highly developed civilization. On the other hand, the historians of antiquity did not leave us such detailed descriptions of their religion, culture and history as in the case of the Thracians, Celts or Germans. We find more or less serious data about some aspects of the Etruscan religion in Latin authors only from the 1st century. BC e., when the original heritage of the Etruscans was significantly obscured by Hellenistic influences. Finally, the question of even the origin of the Etruscans is still unclear, which affects the correctness of comparative conclusions.
According to Herodotus (I, 94), the Etruscans descended from the Lydians, and indeed, the Asian roots of the Etruscans are confirmed by the inscriptions found on Lemnos. However, the forms of Etruscan culture that have reached us do not reflect the realities generally accepted in Asia. What is certain is that there really was a merging of the cultures of the overseas conquerors and the more developed civilization of the indigenous inhabitants of the valleys of the Po and Tiber rivers - the Etruscans, inhabitants of the state of Etruria - and that they stood at a higher stage of development than the Romans. They had a powerful fleet and extensive trade connections, they knew how to smelt iron and built well-fortified cities. Politically, it was a federation of city-states; there were twelve of them in the metropolis. The population of the metropolis, in addition to the Etruscans, included the Umbrians, Veneti, Ligurians and other Italic peoples.