Plato gave eidos and idea. Exercise “World of Eidos”
Plato's teaching about the idea and its meaning
He solves the main question of philosophy unambiguously - idealistically. The material world that surrounds us and which we perceive with our senses is, according to Plato, only a “shadow” and is derived from the world of ideas, i.e. the material world is secondary. All phenomena and objects of the material world are transitory, arise, perish and change (and therefore cannot be truly existing), ideas are unchanging, motionless and eternal. For these properties, Plato recognizes them as genuine, valid being and elevates them to the rank of the only object of truly true knowledge.
The possibility of the emergence of this form of idealism, as V.I. Lenin spoke about it in his “Philosophical Notebooks,” lies already in the first elementary abstraction (“house” in general along with individual houses). Plato explains, for example, the similarity of all tables existing in the material world by the presence of the idea of a table in the world of ideas. All existing tables are just a shadow, a reflection of the eternal and unchanging idea of a table. This, as V.I. Lenin said, is a reversal of reality. In fact, the idea of a table arises as an abstraction, as an expression of a certain similarity (that is, abstraction from the differences) of many individual, concrete tables. Plato separates the idea from real objects (individuals), absolutizes it and proclaims it a priori in relation to them. Ideas are the essence true entities, exist outside the material world and do not depend on it, are objective (hypostasis of concepts), the material world is only subordinate to them. This is the core of Plato's objective idealism (and rational objective idealism in general).
Between the world of ideas, as genuine, real being, and non-existence (i.e., matter as such, matter in itself), according to Plato, there exists apparent being, derivative being (i.e., the world of truly real, sensually perceived phenomena and things) , which separates true being from non-existence. Real, real things are a combination of an a priori idea (true being) with passive, formless “receiving” matter (non-existence).
The relationship between ideas (being) and real things (apparent being) is an important part of Plato's philosophical teaching. Sensibly perceived objects are nothing more than a likeness, a shadow, in which certain patterns - ideas are reflected. In Plato one can also find a statement of the opposite nature. He says that ideas are present in things. This relationship of ideas and things, if interpreted according to the views of Plato of the last period, opens up a certain possibility of movement towards irrationalism.
Plato pays a lot of attention, in particular, to the issue of “hierarchization of ideas.” This hierarchization represents a certain ordered system of objective idealism. Above all, according to Plato, is the idea of beauty and goodness. It not only surpasses all really existing goodness and beauty in that it is perfect, eternal and unchangeable (just like other ideas), but also stands above other ideas. Cognition, or achievement, of this idea is the pinnacle of real knowledge and evidence of the fullness of life. Plato's teaching about ideas was developed in most detail in the main works of the second period - "Symposium", "Law", "Phaedo" and "Phaedrus".
Plato on the goal and stages of knowledge
Plato on purpose. All things in the world are subject to change and development. This is especially true for the living world. Developing, everything strives towards the goal of its development. Hence, another aspect of the concept of “idea” is the goal of development, an idea as an ideal. A person also strives for some kind of ideal, for perfection. For example, when he wants to create a sculpture out of stone, he already has in his mind the idea of a future sculpture, and the sculpture arises as a combination of material, i.e. stone, and an idea existing in the mind of the sculptor. Real sculpture does not correspond to this ideal, because in addition to the idea, it is also involved in matter.
Matter is nothingness. Matter is non-existence and the source of everything bad, and in particular evil. And the idea, as I have already said, is the true existence of a thing.
A given thing exists because it is involved in an idea. In the world, everything unfolds according to some goal, and a goal can only have that which has a soul. Stages of knowledge: opinion and science.
1. Beliefs and opinions (doxa)
2. Insight-understanding-faith (pistis). The beginning of the transformation of the spirit.
3. Pure wisdom (noesis). Comprehension of the truth of Being. The concept of anamnesis (the recollection by the soul in this world of what it saw in the world of ideas) explains the source, or the possibility of knowledge, the guarantee of which is the original intuition of truth in our soul. Plato defines stages and specific ways of knowing in the Republic and dialectical dialogues.
In the Republic, Plato starts from the position that knowledge is proportional to being, so that only what exists in the maximum way is knowable in the most perfect way; it is clear that non-existence is absolutely unknowable. But, since there is an intermediate reality between being and non-being, that is, the sphere of the sensible, a mixture of being and non-being (therefore it is the object of becoming), there is also an intermediate knowledge between science and ignorance: and this intermediate form of knowledge is “doxa”, "doxa", opinion.
Opinion, according to Plato, is almost always deceptive. Sometimes, however, it can be both plausible and useful, but it never has a guarantee of its own accuracy, remaining unstable, just as the world of feelings in which opinion is found is fundamentally unstable. To impart stability to it, it is necessary, Plato asserts in the Meno, to have a “causal basis,” which allows one to fix an opinion through the knowledge of causes (i.e., ideas), and then the opinion turns into science, or “episteme.”
Plato specifies both opinion (doxa) and science (episteme); opinion is divided into simple imagination (eikasia) and belief (pistis); science is a kind of mediation (dianoia) and pure wisdom (noesis). Each of the stages and forms of knowledge correlates with a form of being and reality. Corresponding to the two stages of the sensory are eikasia and pistis, the first - shadows and images of things, the second - the things themselves; dianoia and noesis are two stages of the intelligible, the first is mathematical and geometric knowledge, the second is pure dialectics of ideas. Mathematical-geometric knowledge is a medium because it uses visual elements (figures, for example) and hypotheses, “noesis” is the highest and absolute principle on which everything depends, and this is pure contemplation that holds Ideas, the harmonious conclusion of which is the Idea of the Good. Myth about the Cave and the doctrine of manThe Myth of the CaveIn the center of the "State" we find the famous myth about the Cave. Little by little, this myth turned into a symbol of metaphysics, epistemology and dialectics, as well as ethics and mysticism: a myth that expresses the whole of Plato. This is where we will finish our analysis.
Let's imagine people who live underground, in a cave with an entrance directed towards the light, which illuminates the entire length of one of the walls of the entrance. Let us also imagine that the inhabitants of the cave are also tied at the feet and hands, and being motionless, they turn their gaze deeper into the cave. Let us also imagine that right at the very entrance to the cave there is a shaft of stones as tall as a man, on the other side of which people move, carrying statues of stone and wood and all kinds of images on their shoulders. To top it all off, you need to see a huge fire behind these people, and even higher - a shining sun. Outside the cave, life is in full swing, people are saying something, and their talk echoes in the belly of the cave.
Thus, the prisoners of the cave are unable to see anything except the shadows cast by the figurines on the walls of their gloomy abode; they hear only the echo of someone’s voices. However, they believe that these shadows are the only reality, and without knowing, seeing or hearing anything else, they take echoes and shadow projections at face value. Now suppose that one of the prisoners decides to throw off his shackles, and after considerable effort he becomes accustomed to a new vision of things, say, seeing the figurines moving outside, he would understand that they are real, and not the shadows he had previously seen. Finally, suppose that someone dared to bring the prisoner to freedom. And after the first minute of blinding from the rays of the sun and the fire, our prisoner would see things as such, and then the sun's rays, first reflected, and then their pure light in itself; then, having understood what true reality is, he would understand that the sun is the true cause of all visible things. So what does this myth symbolize?
Four Meanings of the Cave Myth
1. this is an idea of the ontological gradation of being, of the types of reality - sensual and supersensible - and their subtypes: shadows on the walls are the simple appearance of things; statues are sensually perceived things; a stone wall is a demarcation line separating two kinds of existence; objects and people outside the cave are true existence leading to ideas; Well, the sun is the Idea of Good.
2. myth symbolizes the stages of knowledge: contemplation of shadows - imagination (eikasia), vision of statues - (pistis), i.e. beliefs, from which we move on to the understanding of objects as such and to the image of the sun, first indirectly, then directly - this phases of dialectics with various stages, the last of which is pure contemplation, intuitive intelligibility.
3. We also have aspects: ascetic, mystical and theological. Life under the sign of feelings and only feelings is a cave life. Life in the spirit is life in the pure light of truth. The path of ascent from the sensual to the intelligible is “liberation from shackles,” that is, transformation; finally, the highest knowledge of the sun-Good is the contemplation of the divine.
4. This myth also has a political aspect with a truly Platonic sophistication. Plato speaks of the possible return to the cave of someone who has once been freed. To return with the goal of liberating and leading to freedom those with whom he spent many years of slavery.
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Essay
Plato's teaching about eidos as the limit of the formation of a thing
Introduction
The essence Plato's teachings about “eidos” comes down to the concept of the embodiment of a perfect idea in a form that can only endlessly strive for perfection, but cannot achieve it.
Emydos (ancient Greek e?dpt - appearance, appearance, image), term ancient philosophy and literature, which initially meant “visible”, “what is visible”, but gradually acquired a deeper meaning - “the concrete appearance of the abstract”, “material reality in thinking”; in a general sense, a way of organizing and/or being an object.
Every thought, every knowledge, every idea exists in a certain self-existent space and is comprehended by the mind, consciousness, by the same analogy by which the surrounding world is comprehended by the senses. Plato put forward the assumption of the existence of an eternal, original idea (idea of ideas), which is good in its most idealistic understanding. All possible ideas and all knowledge exist initially. The soul only “remembers” what was originally stored in it. All the knowledge that the soul carried within itself in the perfect world of ideas, when incarnated on earth, is lost or, more precisely, forgotten.
1. Plato's teaching on the “idea”
Spirkin A.G. describes Plato as a great thinker who permeates the entire world philosophical culture with his finest spiritual threads.
Plato says: “The world is not just a physical cosmos, and individual objects and phenomena: in it the general is combined with the individual, and the cosmic with the human.” Space is a kind of work of art. He is beautiful, he is the integrity of individuals. The cosmos lives, breathes, pulsates, filled with various potentialities, and it is controlled by forces that form general patterns. The cosmos is full of divine meaning, representing the unity of ideas, eternal, incorruptible and abiding in its radiant beauty. According to Plato, the world is dual in nature: it distinguishes between the visible world of changeable objects and the invisible world of ideas. The world of ideas represents true existence, and concrete, sensory things are something between being and non-being: they are only shadows of things, their weak copies.
Idea is a central category in Plato's philosophy. The idea of a thing is something ideal. So, for example, we drink water, but we cannot drink the idea of water or eat the idea of sky, paying in stores with the ideas of money: an idea is the meaning, the essence of a thing.
Plato's ideas summarize all cosmic life: they have regulatory energy and govern the Universe. They are characterized by regulatory and formative power; they are eternal patterns, paradigms (from the Greek jaradigma - sample), according to which the whole multitude of real things is organized from formless and fluid matter. Plato interpreted ideas as certain divine essences. They were thought of as target causes, charged with the energy of aspiration, and there were relations of coordination and subordination between them. The highest idea is the idea of absolute good - it is a kind of “Sun in the kingdom of ideas”, the world’s Reason, it deserves the name of Reason and Divinity. Plato proves the existence of God by the feeling of our affinity with his nature, which, as it were, “vibrates” in our souls. An essential component of Plato's worldview is belief in gods. Plato considered it the most important condition for the stability of the social world order. According to Plato, the spread of “ungodly views” has a detrimental effect on citizens, especially young people, is a source of unrest and arbitrariness, and leads to the violation of legal and moral norms.
Interpreting the idea of the soul, Plato says: the soul of a person before his birth resides in the realm of pure thought and beauty. Then she ends up on the sinful earth, where she temporarily resides in a human body, like a prisoner in a dungeon. Having been born, she already knows everything. what you need to know. She chooses her lot; she already seems destined for her own fate, destiny. Thus. The soul, according to Plato, is an immortal essence; there are three parts in it: rational, turned to ideas; ardent, affective-volitional; sensual, driven by passions, or lustful. The rational part of the soul is the basis of virtue and wisdom, the ardent part of courage; overcoming sensuality is the virtue of prudence. As for the Cosmos as a whole, the source of harmony is the world mind, a force capable of adequately thinking about itself, being at the same time an active principle, the helmsman of the soul, governing the body, which in itself is deprived of the ability to move. In the process of thinking, the soul is active, internally contradictory, dialogical and reflexive.
According to Plato, the highest good (the idea of good, and it is above all) resides outside the world. Consequently, the highest goal of morality is located in the supersensible world. After all, the soul received its beginning not in the earthly, but in high world. And clothed in earthly flesh, she acquires a multitude of all kinds of evils and suffering. According to Plato, the sensory world is imperfect - it is full of disorder. Man’s task is to rise above him and with all the strength of his soul strive to become like God, who does not come into contact with anything evil; is to free the soul from everything corporeal, concentrate it on itself, on the inner world of speculation and deal only with the true and eternal.
2 . Dialogue with HippiasAndAndthe idea of "beautiful"»
An extremely clear discussion of the issue of ideas is contained in the dialogue “Hippias the Greater” - the example may be quite hackneyed, but I have not found a better one. Socrates asks the sophist Hippias a question: is it not true that everything that is just is due to justice, everything that is good is due to the good, and everything that is beautiful is so due to the beautiful? .
The conversation between Socrates and Hippias begins with the question of the essence of beauty as “eidos”:
S: What is beautiful in your being?
G: This is a beautiful girl.
S: This is a special case. But there is something unconditionally beautiful, which gives individual things the property of being beautiful.
G goes through several more definitions (beautiful is useful, suitable, etc.).
S: No, but all these phenomena are determined by their true essence - “idea”.
Thus, beauty is considered here from the point of view of essence (oysia) or idea (eidos). The beautiful is the meaning (logos) of essence. All of Plato's main terms appear here for the first time.
From what has been said it follows: The beautiful is not a separate object, but it is the inclusion of the ideal “eidos” that makes it such.
In Plato’s aesthetics, beauty is understood as the absolute interpenetration of body, soul and mind, the fusion of idea and matter, rationality and pleasure, and the principle of this fusion is measure. In Plato, knowledge is not separated from love, and love is not separated from beauty (“Symposium”, “Phaedrus”). Everything beautiful, that is, is visible and audible, externally or bodily, it is animated by its inner life and contains one meaning or another. Such beauty turned out to be the ruler and, in general, the source of life for all living things in Plato.
The beauty of life and real existence for Plato is higher than the beauty of art. Being and life is an imitation of eternal ideas, and art is an imitation of being and life, i.e. imitation imitation. Therefore, Plato expelled Homer (although he placed him above all the poets of Greece) from his ideal state, since it is the creativity of life, and not of fiction, even beautiful ones. Plato expelled sad, softening or table music from his state, leaving only military or generally courageous and peacefully active music. Good manners and decency are a necessary condition for beauty.
If we limit ourselves to general characteristic, then it should be said that Plato has beauty infinity symbol. However, based on the summary given above, it must be said that Plato conceives of infinity in at least three aspects. The symbol, we say, is found in Plato eidos(visual semantic structure) either as the limit of the formation of a sensory-material thing, as the limit of the relationship with all other eidos that it reflects, or as the limit of the relationship with the unpreconditioned beginning, one of the endless radiations of which it is.
Finally, in order to distinguish Platonic idealism from other types of idealism and Platonic symbolism from other types of symbolism, it is necessary to introduce another term into Plato’s final formula of beauty, which we have already encountered, but which is absolutely impossible to do without here. Namely, the symbol that Plato conceives is in no case allegory, that is, an allegory in which signified And meaning in their being they are completely separate spheres and point to each other only in meaning, and even then under the condition of not complete, but only partial understanding of the meaning. When an eidos reflects other eidos in Plato, then this reflection is not just semantic, but existential, that is, by its very existence it contains all the eidos it reflects. In the same way, when eidos is the limit of the becoming of a thing, this means that in this case it is the limit not just mathematically, but by its very existence it generates from itself the entire becoming of a thing. The same must be said about unpremised being, from which all eidos existing in thought emanate not only in a semantic sense, but by which they are generated in the present and completely bexistential respect. And in general, when Plato thinks about the symbol of infinity, then this symbol, being a reflection of infinity, not in a figurative sense of the word, not allegorically, but by its very being, There is all infinity entirely, although expressed each time in an original and specific way. So as not to confuse it with an allegory, we called such a symbol absolute symbol. Without such a characteristic, Plato’s symbolism, and therefore all of his idealism, will lose everything that is real. historical meaning which he had at one time.
Thus, the shortest formula of Platonic aesthetics is: beauty is a mental-light, hierarchical and absolute symbol of the infinity of material-becoming, ideal-semantic and super-ideal, consisting in the contraction of all being and reality, everything ideal and material in one indivisible point, in one absolute and all-generating zero. This gives us the opportunity to clarify that too general idea of the image and prototypes in Plato, which appeared to us at the very beginning. And this formula gives us the opportunity to present in a more general form (namely with the help of the concept of infinity) the reasoning about the imitation of an ideal state by an eternal model.
3. Plato's dialectical method of knowledge
For Plato, the main science that defines all others is dialectics - the method of dividing the one into the many, reducing the many to the one and structurally representing the whole as a single multiplicity. Dialectics, entering the realm of confused things, dismembers them so that each thing receives its own meaning, its own idea. This meaning, or idea of a thing, is taken as the principle of the thing, as its “hypothesis”, the law (“nomos”), which in Plato leads from scattered sensuality to an ordered idea and back; This is exactly how Plato understands logos. Dialectics is therefore the establishment of mental foundations for things, a kind of objective a priori categories or forms of meaning. These logos - idea - hypothes - foundation are also interpreted as the limit (“goal”) of sensory formation. Such a universal goal is good in the Republic, Philebus, Gorgias, or beauty in the Symposium. This limit of the formation of a thing contains in a compressed form the entire formation of a thing and is, as it were, its plan, its structure. In this regard, dialectics in Plato is a doctrine of indivisible wholes; as such it is at once discursive and intuitive; making all kinds of logical divisions, she knows how to merge everything together. A dialectician, according to Plato, has a “total vision” of the sciences, “sees everything at once.”
Conclusion
From the above, we found out the essence of the most basic, fundamental concepts of Platonism: firstly, we revealed the concept of eidos, secondly, the relationship between the “finite” form on the one hand and the “infinite” idea on the other in the concept of “the limit of the formation of a thing”, thirdly , we examined the concept of beauty, fourthly, the concept of logos as the idea of all ideas and, finally, fifthly, we touched upon dialectical method knowledge, which was developed and used by Plato.
Based on the material studied, we can conclude that Plato’s philosophy is different high level idealism and a close connection with the mythological and religious knowledge of the world, which is confirmed, in particular, in the idea “ higher intelligence", "souls of all souls", "ideas of all ideas". Plato was also the first to use the concept of the demiurge - the creator of the universe.
Demiumrg(ancient Greek dmyphsgt - “master, artisan, creator” from ancient Greek d?mpt - “people” and?sgpn - “business, craft, trade”) - originally the name of the class of artisans in ancient Greek society. Subsequently, this word began to mean God the Creator, the creator of the world.
Striving to embody ideas that are closest in spirit to the above-mentioned essence, a person thereby realizes his improvement. By implementing step by step more and more perfect ideas close to the Demiurge, a person approaches him in his highest forms.
plato philosopher dialectical spiritual
List of referencesry
1) Spirkin A.G. Philosophy, Chapter 1. Ancient philosophy, § 12. Plato
2) Bogomolov A.S. Ancient philosophy. - M, 1985.
3) Losev A.F. History of ancient aesthetics. Sophists. Socrates. Plato. § 6. Absolute reality
4) Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 23, p. 379
5) Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 5th ed., vol. 18, p. 131
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The doctrine of "ideas". Origins and general features of Plato's objective idealism. Platanus' teaching about knowledge as recollection. Ideas about morality and the state in the philosophy of Plato. The doctrine of dividing citizens into categories in a perfect state.
IV century - the heyday of Greek philosophy.
His texts have reached us almost completely, although there are doubts about the authenticity of some.
Plato wrote all of his works in the form of dialogues.
The form of dialogues was chosen based on the Socratic method: reasoning, contradiction, continuation of disputes and establishment of truth.
Plato's Academy (from 386 BC to 529 AD) – 915 years. The Academy was located in a grove dedicated to the hero Akadema. Academy is a society of artists or scientists.
For Socrates, the basis is the fixation of concepts.
The Socratic way is not very effective, the definitions of concepts are unsteady. The same term is different in different contexts. We distinguish concepts, but we cannot give a rational definition of the concept.
Plato concludes that Socrates is both right and wrong. Concepts are not the basic units of thinking.
The word “idea” comes up. The main elements of being and thinking are ideas or eidos.
IDEA = EIDOS (image) = being-in-itself.
Ideas are different from concepts: concepts are abstract character(we define them), ideas are reality itself.
Plato's teaching is a system of objective idealism. Objective idealism asserts that spirit, thinking, ideas exist objectively, independently of consciousness and are primary in relation to nature. Ideas exist on their own.
Objective idealism speaks of a certain objective world ideas or eidos.
Ideas are more genuine than the things we perceive with our senses.
For example, we discuss what BEAUTY is.
We observe a sunny autumn morning -> everyone agrees that it is very beautiful -> they meet a horse -> here is a beautiful horse -> they meet a woman, she is beautiful -> there is a beautiful flower pot in the kitchen => 4 objects were called beautiful, united by the “concept” of beauty.
There is beauty in itself - an idea.
Beauty is not a thing. This is something that we see in things, something that is inherent in them. But a horse and a woman are not alike. This merger is possible because behind the concept of beauty, which exists in reality, there is actually an idea of beauty.
Beauty exists not only as a physical phenomenon, but also as an idea.
The idea (ideal) of beauty is contained in our thinking. We compare the idea with real things.
=> This means that there are two worlds: the world of things (material, the path of physis, the path of Thales) and the world of ideas (the world that Parmenides suspected, which Socrates meant).
The main elements of thinking are ideas. We think correctly if our thinking is in contact with the world of ideas.
Democritus called his atoms by the word “eidos”. Eidos is the smallest indivisible particle; everything consists of these particles.
The main property of eidos is that they are not perceptible by sense, but for Democritus these particles are still material.
Idea or eidos - the nature of sensory insensitivity - immateriality. For Plato, this is a special reality.
Basic properties of eidos (ideas)
1. Idea – the true existence of a thing.
Idea definitions:
An idea is the essence of a thing that we cognize by thinking.
The idea is what makes a thing what it is.
2. An idea is a standard (sample) for a thing.
Any thing expresses an idea, but expresses it partially, incompletely. Things are imperfect copies of things.
3.Ideas are eternal and unchanging. They exist on their own.
If they changed every day, then the existence of the world is hardly possible.
Existence is material and ideal. Ideal being is opposed to ideal being.
The material world is an inauthentic existence.
Parable of the Cave.
Seventh book of the dialogue “The State”, parable of the cave:
Situation: a cave, there are people in it, but they are chained to the wall with their backs to the fire. This is their life. Other people pass behind them, carry objects, but chained people see only shadows in front of them. Entrance to the cave: bright day, the sun is shining.
Consider the following situation. You spent a significant part of your life chained. You could only guess about the reason for the shadows. Then you are released. You see what's behind. You realize that there were shadows, but in reality everything is different.
The fire is blinding: you close your eyes and it’s difficult for you to get used to it, you get used to it.
You move on to the exit. There is a bright light there - it blinds you. You adapt => your world is a wretched cave, and around it is a rich world.
Interpretation of the myth.
Chains are sensory knowledge. Limitation sensory knowledge, knowledge of the world of material objects does not give truth. The shadows of objects are the material world.
The need for education. We can become blind from the contemplation of ideas, i.e. become dogmatic or deny ideas altogether, i.e. become blind.
Everything must be seen in the light of truth, and not the opinion of authority or one’s own.
The path of the philosopher is the exit from the cave.
Education is a reconstruction of the soul (in modern language: our consciousness), and not just filling the soul with knowledge about the material world.
Truth is the correspondence of our knowledge to reality.
Existence reveals itself to us only in the light of ideas. (Plato: knowledge is recognition, recognition with the help of ideas.)
The soul is immortal, ideas are innate to us.
Knowledge is the recollection of what was seen in the other life, when the soul, before acquiring a body, was in the world of ideas.
Mathematician example. Axiomatic principles of mathematics.
Structure of existence:
material world –> world of ideas (true existence – ideas of goodness, justice, happiness, etc.) –> idea of the Good
Good is the idea of God, absolute harmony.
The world is seen as an ascent from the less general to the more general and, finally, to the most general and unique of its kind.
Teleology is the doctrine of expediency. Human life and natural phenomena are subordinated to goals and there is realization number of goals or ideas. Nature in particular, because it is designed in the best possible way. For Plato, goals are ethical values. Ethical teleologism.
Metempsychosis is the Pythagorean doctrine of the transmigration of souls.
Evidence of the immortality of the soul:
1. All living things arise from non-living things and non-living things from living things. Therefore, souls having died are born again.
2. The soul perceives ideas. Next, the soul is involved in ideas. She is similar to them in some ways. Ideas are eternal, so the soul is eternal.
3.Knowledge is the recollection of what is seen in the afterlife. Anamnesis - recall. Ideas are a priori (before experience). Next, the soul is eternal, because she was in kingdom of the dead, contemplating ideas.
4. Life is what the idea created. There is no death because this is a return back to a lower level. The death of a person does not transform the idea of life into the idea of death. Ideas do not transform into each other. The idea of life continues to exist. Next, the soul is immortal, because it expresses the idea of life.
State concept.
According to Plato, the state should be ruled by wise men (the power of the aristocracy). The state according to Plato is based on non-violence.
Plato created the theory of a just state. Among the students was King Dionysius. He suggested that Plato build a fair state on the island. Dionysius saw that what delighted him in theory was not so attractive in practice (power wise people and so on.).
Dionysius sold Plato into slavery by cunning. But Plato’s student accidentally bought it.
Later, Dionysius II, his son, suggested the same to Plato. => Plato agreed, but suffered again. => Later he recoiled towards violence.
Philosophy of Aristotle (384-322).
Born into the family of a doctor of the Macedonian king.
At the age of 18, Aristotle was left without parents, moved to Athens and entered Plato's school. 343 BC was called back to the court of Philip II in Macedonia. He was asked to become the teacher of the young Alexander the Great.
There are conflicting reports about his influence on Alexander. Alexander spread Greek culture.
General character of Aristotle's works:
1. Aristotle tried to analyze and generalize all the ideas of the theories that existed before him.
2. Aristotle is not an inspired prophet, but a systematizer (boring). Similar to the style of non-fiction. The subjective, personal is taken out of the equation and strives for objectivity.
3. Aristotle is a great namer. There are a lot of new words and unclear terms. Tries to give each phenomenon a specific name to avoid ambiguity.
4. General evolution, general trend: at first - a successor to Plato, the further, the more critical. "Plato is my friend but the truth is dearer".
Teaching sections:
1. Metaphysics (first philosophy)
2.Physics (“Physics”, “About the sky”, ...)
3. Ethics (not so much about morality, but about the person as a whole)
4.Politics (about society and state)
5.Logic and rhetoric.
Aristotle criticizes Plato's theory of ideas (first chapter in “metaphysics”). Plato's explanations are not valid, since instead of explaining one world (the one in which we live), he invents another world (the so-called doubling of worlds).
It is necessary to explain the order, the structure of the world of ideas (the world of ideas explains the order of the world of things, to explain the world of ideas a third world is needed, and so on).
Aristotle: “The world is one and therefore ideas (eidos) do not exist separately from things, separately from matter. The idea is in the thing.”
Aristotle's concept.
Existence consists of two parts: form and matter.
Matter and form are always one: there is no matter in itself, we always see matter in some form.
Matter left to itself is chaos.
Form is an active principle.
Sensory cognition senses, cognizes form. And, consequently, there is nothing in the mind that is not in sensory perception.
What is true reality - form or matter?
Answer: Form.
Matter has only the possibility, the possibility of becoming a thing, an object. But only form gives a thing its reality. If there is no form, then it does not exist. Form and matter are one - this is the unity of object and idea.
Form is the active principle, matter is passive. Form is primary in relation to matter. Form is reality, and matter is possibility.
How are form and matter related?
The main problem is the movement and the cause.
It all starts with movement. Movement is the transition of possibility into reality.
If some object, a body is moving, then what is the reason for its movement?
The reason for the movement of a body is the action of another body on it. But the first body is acted upon by the second, the second is acted upon by the third, and so on. And where is the main reason?
There is only one way out: the final source of movement must be absolutely motionless. This is the prime mover. This is the only way to explain movement. Movement is inherent to the prime mover immanently and is not communicated to it from the outside. Immanent is a property inherent in an object, an internal essence.
But what makes something what it is? How is the idea implemented? Through motion, matter, form and purpose (ideas).
It becomes due to four reasons: material, formal, driving (active) and target. The target explains the purpose and meaning of the movement.
Movement->Matter->Form->Purpose->And again movement.= Prime Mover.
And all this is the prime mover.
This is the transition of possibility into reality, the transition of matter into form. Teleology is the doctrine of expediency. Only for Aristotle are goals internal to nature, which lives according to its own laws. And for Plato, teleology is the goals inherent in ideas and realizing ethical values (the Good).
According to Plato, a beautiful thing is preceded by the Idea of Beauty.
According to Aristotle, reality precedes possibility.
Aristotle's worldview is teleological. Teleology philosophical doctrine, ascribing goals to natural phenomena that are established by God or the internal causes of nature (as in Aristotle).
Syllogism is the discovery of Aristotle. A syllogism is a conclusion in which two premises (statements) lead to a conclusion (new statement) of the same logical structure.
The combination of premises within each figure are modes.
A=B
B=C
------ (Hence)
A=C
Middle term. How does the common appear? The general appears as a result of reflection on inductive inference. The science of thinking is analytics.
Induction explains the ascent from the particular to the general. Deduction – from the general to the specific.
If for Plato, knowledge is the recollection of what is seen in the afterlife.
Aristotle believes that thought is a movement from one statement to another. Thought is not an idea in the Pplatonic sense as a recollection of what is seen in the other life. Transition from one conclusion (syllogism) to another.
In the concept of the state, democracy is the worst form, and the ideal form of polity is a republic.
in ancient philosophy (especially in Plato) and further - ideas, primary non-material prototypes of things, their spiritual meanings. The world of eidos (ideas) is a special world of primary essences - the basis of being according to Plato. Plato's doctrine of ideas is the most important part of Platonic philosophy and philosophical Platonism, the forerunner of philosophical idealism.
Great definition
Incomplete definition ↓
EIDOS
Greek eidos - type, image, sample) is a term of ancient philosophy that captures the method of organizing an object, as well as the categorical structure of medieval and modern philosophy, interpreting the original semantics of a given concept - respectively - in traditional and non-traditional contexts. In ancient Greek philosophy, the concept of E. was used to denote external structure: appearance as appearance ( Milesian school , Heraclitus, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, atomists). The correlation of element with the substrate arche acts as a fundamental semantic opposition to ancient philosophy, and the acquisition of element by a thing is actually thought of as its formation, which sets the close semantic connection of the concept of element with the concept of form (see Hylemorphism). The fundamental initial design of the structural units of the universe is fixed by Democritus by designating the atom with the term “E.”. The eidotic design of a thing is conceived in pre-Socratic natural philosophy as a result of the influence on the passive substantial principle of the active principle, embodying the pattern of the world and associated with mentality and goal-setting as carrying within itself the image (E.) of the future thing (logos, Nus, etc.). In Greek philosophy, language and culture as a whole, in this regard, the concept of E. turns out to be virtually equivalent, from the point of view of semantics, to the concept of idea (Greek idea - appearance, image, appearance, kind, method). And if the phenomenon of the substrate is associated in ancient culture with the material (respectively, the maternal) principle, then the source of E. is associated with the paternal, male principle - see Idealism). If, within the framework of pre-Socratic philosophy, E. was understood as the external structure of an object, then in Plato the content of the concept “E.” is significantly transformed: first of all, E. is understood not as an external, but as an internal form, i.e. immanent way of being of an object; In addition, E. acquires an ontologically independent status in Plato’s philosophy: the transcendental world of ideas or, synonymously, the world of E. as a set of absolute and perfect examples of possible things. The perfection of E. (= ideas) is denoted by Plato through the semantic figure of the immobility of its essence (oysia), initially equal to itself (compare with the Genesis of the Eleatics, whose self-sufficiency was recorded as immobility). E.'s way of being, however, is his incarnation and embodiment in multiple objects, structured in accordance with his gestalt (E. as a model) and therefore bearing in their structure and form (E. as a type) his image (E. as an image) . In this context, the interaction between an object and a subject in the process of cognition is interpreted by Plato as communication (koinonia) between the E. of the object and the soul of the subject, the result of which is the imprint of E. to the soul of a person, i.e. noema (noema) as a conscious E., - subjective E. of objective E. (Parmenides, 130-132c). In the philosophy of Aristotle, E. is thought of as immanent in the material substrate of the object and inseparable from the latter (in the 19th century, this emphasis of Aristotle’s attitude was called hylaeomorphism: Greek. hile - matter, morphe - form). Any transformation of an object is interpreted by Aristotle as a transition from the deprivation of one or another element (accidental non-existence) to its acquisition (accidental formation). In Aristotle's taxonomy (in the field of logic and biology), the term "E." is also used in the meaning of “species” as a classification unit (“species” as a set of objects of a certain “species” as a method of organization) - in relation to the “genus” (genos). In a similar meaning, the term "E." also used in tradition ancient history(Herodotus, Thucydides). Stoicism brings the concept of energy closer to the concept of logos, emphasizing in it the creative, organizing principle (“spermatic logos”). Within the framework of Neoplatonism, E. in the original Platonic sense is attributed to the One as his “thoughts” (Albinus), Nous as the Demiurge (Plotinus), and numerous E. in the Aristotelian sense (as immanent gestalts of the object organization) - to products of emanation. The semantics of E. as the archetypal basis of things is updated in medieval philosophy: archetipium as a prototype of things in the thinking of God in orthodox scholasticism (see Anselm of Canterbury on the original pre-existence of things as archetypes in God's conversation with himself, similar to the pre-existence of a work of art in the mind of the master); John Duns Scotus about haecceitos (thisness) as a prior thing of its self, actualized in the free creative will of God) and in unorthodox directions of scholastic thought: the concept of species (the image is the Latin equivalent of E.) in late Scotism; presumption of visiones (mental images in Nicholas of Cusa and others. In late classical and non-classical philosophy, the concept of E. finds a second wind: speculative forms of unfolding the content of the Absolute Idea before its objectification in the otherness of nature in Hegel; Schopenhauer’s teaching about the “world of reasonable ideas”; eidology Husserl, where species is thought of as an intellectual, but at the same time concretely given abstraction as a subject of “intellectual intuition”, the concept of “ideas” by E.I. Gaiser in neo-Thomism, etc. In modern psychology, the term “eidetism” denotes the characteristic of the phenomenon of memory associated with extremely vivid clarity of the recorded object, within which the representation is practically not inferior to direct perception according to the criteria of meaningful detail and emotional and sensory richness.
Great definition
Incomplete definition ↓
Eidos(Greek eidos - appearance, image, sample) - a term of ancient philosophy that fixes way of organizing an object
, as well as the categorical structure of medieval and modern philosophy, interpreting the original semantics of a given concept, respectively, in traditional and non-traditional contexts.
In ancient Greek philosophy, the concept of eidos was used to designate external structure: appearance as appearance (Milesian school, Heraclitus, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, atomists). The relationship of eidos with the substrate arche acts as a fundamental semantic opposition to ancient philosophy, and the acquisition of eidos by a thing is actually thought of as its formation, which sets a close semantic connection between the concept of eidos and the concept of form (hylemorphism).
The fundamental initial design of the structural units of the universe is fixed by Democritus by designating the atom with the term “eidos”. The eidotic design of a thing is conceived in pre-Socratic natural philosophy as a result of the influence on the passive substantial principle of the active principle, embodying the pattern of the world and associated with mentality and goal-setting as carrying within itself the image (eidos) of the future thing (logos, Nus, etc.). In ancient Greek philosophy, language and culture as a whole, in this regard, the concept of E. turns out to be virtually equivalent from the point of view of semantics to the concept of idea (Greek idea - appearance, image, appearance, kind, method). And if the phenomenon of “substrate” is associated in ancient culture with the material (respectively, maternal) principle, then the source of “eidos” is with the paternal, masculine (idealism). If within the framework of pre-Socratic philosophy, eidos was understood as the external structure of an object, then in Plato the content of the concept of “eidos” is significantly transformed: first of all, eidos is understood not as external, but as internal form
, i.e. immanent way of being of an object. In addition, eidos acquires an ontologically independent status in Plato’s philosophy: the transcendental world of ideas or - synonymously - world of eidos How a set of absolute and perfect examples of possible things
. The perfection of eidos (= idea) is denoted by Plato through the semantic figure of the immobility of its essence (oysia), initially equal to itself (cf. “Being” among the Eleatics, whose self-sufficiency was recorded as immobility). The way of being of eidos, however, is its incarnation and embodiment in multiple objects structured in accordance with its gestalt ( eidos as a model) and therefore bearing in their structure and form ( eidos as a species) his image ( eidos as an image). In this context, the interaction between object and subject in the process of cognition is interpreted by Plato as communication (koinonia) between the eidos of the object and the soul of the subject
, the result of which is the imprint of eidos on the human soul, i.e. noema (noema) like conscious eidos
, - subjective eidos objective eidos
. (Parmenides).
In Aristotle’s philosophy, eidos is thought of as immanent in the material substrate of an object and inseparable from the latter (in the 19th century, this emphasis of Aristotle’s attitude was called hylemorphism). Any transformation of an object is interpreted by Aristotle as a transition from the deprivation of one or another eidos (accidental non-existence) to its acquisition (accidental formation). In Aristotle's taxonomy (in the field of logic and biology), the term "eidos" is also used in the meaning of "species" as a classification unit ("species" as a set of objects of a certain "species" as a method of organization) - in relation to the "genus" (genos). The term “eidos” is also used in a similar meaning in the tradition of ancient history (Herodotus, Thucydides).
Stoicism brings the concept of “eidos” closer to the concept of logos, emphasizing in it the creative, organizing principle (“spermatic logos”). Within the framework of Neoplatonism, “eidos” in the original Platonic sense is attributed to the One as his “thoughts” (Albinus), Nous as the Demiurge (Plotinus), and numerous eidos in the Aristotelian sense (as immanent gestalts of the object organization) - products of emanation .
The semantics of eidos as the archetypal basis of things is actualized in medieval philosophy:
archetipium as a prototype of things in the thinking of God in orthodox scholasticism;
John Duns Scotus about haecceitos (thisness) as a prior thing of her selfhood, actualized in the free creative will of God and in unorthodox directions of scholastic thought: the concept of species (the image is the Latin equivalent of eidos) in late Scotism;
presumption of visiones (mental images in Nicholas of Cusa), etc.
In late classical and non-classical philosophy, the concept of “eidos” finds a second wind: speculative forms of unfolding the content of the Absolute Idea before its objectification in the otherness of nature in Hegel; Schopenhauer's teaching about the "world of rational ideas"; Husserl's eidology (in Husserl's phenomenology is equivalent to essence), where species is conceived as an intellectual, but at the same time concretely given abstraction as a subject of “intellectual intuition”; concept of "ideas" E.I. Gaiser in neo-Thomism, etc.
In modern postmodern philosophy with its paradigmatic attitudes of “postmetaphysical thinking” and “postmodern sensitivity” (Postmetaphysical thinking, Postmodern sensitivity, Postmodernism), the concept of “eidos” is among those that are obviously associated with the tradition of metaphysics and logocentrism (logocentrism) and therefore are subject to radical criticism. This criticism turns out to be especially devastating in the context of the postmodern concept of simulacrum (Simulacrum, Simulation) and the “metaphysics of absence” constituted by postmodernism: thus, Derrida directly connects the traditionalist presumption of the “presence of a thing” with “the view of it as an eidos.”
Eidetic Sciences
- sciences of essence as opposed to sciences of external facts.
The phenomenological method includes eidetic reduction
(bracketing) “world existence”, i.e. that individual existence of the contemplated object, which is determined by its place in the chain natural phenomena. Through eidetic reduction, all scientific and non-scientific data of experience, judgment, position, evaluation related to the subject are excluded from the field of view, so that the essence of the subject becomes free and knowable.
Eidetics(from the Greek eidetike (episteme) - the science of what is seen) - 1) in psychology, the doctrine developed by Jensch about a completely definite (standing in connection with certain types of constitution) spiritual predisposition, which he called eidetic, which is observed in Ch. O. in children and adolescents;
2) the same as the doctrine of essence.
In modern psychology, the term “eidetism” denotes a characteristic of the phenomenon of memory associated with the extremely vivid clarity of the recorded object, within which the presentation is practically not inferior to direct perception according to the criteria of content detail and emotional and sensory richness.
Eidetic image (from Greek eidos - image) - unusually bright