An ancient thinker who recognized the primacy of the world of ideas. History of Philosophy Tests - file n1.doc
THE SUBJECT OF PHILOSOPHY
1. From Greek, the word "philosophy" is translated as:
love of wisdom
2. For the first time he used the word "philosophy" and called himself a "philosopher":
3. Determine the time of the emergence of philosophy:
7th-6th centuries BC.
4. Fundamentals of being, problems of cognition, the purpose of a person and his position in the world studies:
philosophy
5. Worldview form of social consciousness, rationally substantiating the ultimate foundations of being, including society and law:
philosophy
6. The ideological function of philosophy is that:
philosophy helps a person to understand himself, his place in the world
7. Worldview is:
a set of views, assessments, emotions that characterize a person's attitude to the world and to himself
8. What meaning did G. Hegel put into the statement that “philosophy is an era captured by thought”?
The course of history depends on the direction of thinking of philosophers
9. The defining feature of a religious worldview is:
belief in supernatural, otherworldly forces that have the ability to influence the course of events in the world
11. What is characteristic of the epistemic line in philosophy?
view of reality as constantly evolving
12. Ontology is:
the doctrine of being, of its fundamental principles
13. Gnoseology is:
the doctrine of nature, the essence of knowledge
14. Anthropology is:
doctrine of man
15. Axiology is:
doctrine of values
16. Ethics is:
the doctrine of morality and moral values
17. Section of philosophy, in which the problems of knowledge are developed
Epistemology
18. According to Marxist philosophy, the essence of the main question of philosophy is:
relation of mind to matter
19. Idealism is characterized by the statement:
consciousness is primary, matter does not exist independently of consciousness
20. Dualism is characterized by the thesis:
matter and consciousness are two principles that exist independently of each other
21. To whom does this statement belong: “I affirm that there are no things. We're just used to talking about things; in fact, there is only my thinking, there is only my "I" with its inherent sensations. The material world only seems to us, it is just a certain way of talking about our feelings”?
Subjective idealist
22. What historical type of worldview are we talking about here: “This is a holistic worldview, in which various ideas are linked into a single figurative picture of the world, combining reality and fantasy, natural and supernatural, knowledge and faith, thought and emotions”?
23. Some Christian theologians claim that the whole world. The entire universe was created by God in six days, and God himself is a disembodied intellect, an all-perfect Personality. What philosophical direction corresponds to such a view of the world?
Objective idealism
24. With the statement: "Thinking is the same product of the activity of the brain, as bile is a product of the activity of the liver," the representative would agree:
vulgar materialism
25. Agnosticism is:
a doctrine that denies the cognizability of the essence of the objective world
26. Agnosticism is:
direction in the theory of knowledge, which believes that adequate knowledge of the world is impossible
27. Deny the possibility of knowing the world:
agnostics
28. Direction west European philosophy, which denies the cognitive value of philosophy, the presence of its own, original subject:
positivism
PHILOSOPHY OF THE ANCIENT EAST
29. The law of retribution in Indian religion and religious philosophy, which determines the nature of the new birth of reincarnation:
30. The name of the founder of Buddhism, meaning awakened, enlightened:
31. The name of the founder of Buddhism
Siddhartha
32. The central concept of Buddhism and Jainism, meaning the highest state, the goal of human aspirations:
33. The concept of ancient Chinese philosophy, denoting a masculine, bright and active principle:
34. The concept of ancient Chinese philosophy, denoting the feminine, dark and passive principle:
35. The concept of a “noble husband” as an ideal person was developed by:
Confucius
36. What do the concepts of Brahman in Vedanta and apeiron in the philosophy of Anaximander mean:
Higher intelligence
37. In the philosophy of Heraclitus, the word Logos denotes the world law, the world order, to which everything that exists is subject. Which concept of Chinese philosophy has the same meaning:
38. What does the concept of "dharma" mean in the traditional Indian philosophy:
Eternal moral law, prescribing from above to everyone a certain way of life
39. Ancient Indian philosophical texts include
Upanishads
40. Ancient Chinese philosophical texts include
Tao Te Ching
41. In Indian philosophy - the total amount of committed deeds and their consequences, which determines the nature of the new birth
42. Chinese philosopher, founder of Taoism
43. The golden rule of morality: "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others" was first formulated:
Confucius
PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT GREECE
44.Chronological framework for the development of ancient philosophy:
6th century BC - VI century. AD
45. The main principle of ancient philosophy was:
cosmocentrism
46. The main problem solved by the philosophers of the Milesian school:
problem of origin
47. Thesis belonging to the thinker Thales:
"Know Thyself"
48. Thesis belonging to the thinker Thales
"The beginning of all things is water"
49. Anaximenes took for the fundamental principle of all things
50. Position: “Number is the essence and meaning of everything that is in the world”, belongs to:
Pythagoras
51. A follower of Pythagoras, the first to draw a system of the world and place the Central Fire in the center of the universe
Parmenides
52. For the first time the concept of being in philosophy used
Parmenides
53. Movement, any change is only an illusion of the sensory world, they argued:
54. Representatives of what philosophical school posed the problem of being, opposed the world of feelings to the world of reason and proved that movement, any change is just an illusion of the sensual illusory world:
Elean
55. What do you think, the hypothetical dispute of which philosophers was portrayed by A.S. Pushkin in the poem "Movement"?
Zeno and Heraclitus
56. An ancient philosopher who believed that one and the same river cannot be entered twice:
Heraclitus
57. Which of the ancient philosophers taught that everything develops, that the root cause of the world and its fundamental principle is fire, that one and the same river cannot be entered twice?
Heraclitus
58. The concept of "Logos" in the philosophical teachings of Heraclitus means:
The universal law to which everything in the world is subject
59. For the first time he expressed the idea of the atomistic structure of matter:
Democritus
60. The saying: “Man is the measure of all things” belongs to:
Protagoras
62. Knowledge according to Socrates is identical:
virtues
63. The essence of Socrates' "ethical rationalism":
virtue is the result of knowing what is good, while the absence of virtue is the result of ignorance
64. Objective-idealistic philosophy was founded by:
Plato
65. In antiquity, the merit of discovering the supersensible world of ideas belongs to:
66. How does the idea of a “horse” in Plato’s philosophy differ from a real, live, real horse? Specify the wrong answer.
The idea is immortal, eternal, the real horse is mortal
67. In Plato's philosophy, the idea of a "horse" differs from a real, living horse in that:
the idea is material, the real horse is ideal
68. The statement that the soul before the birth of a person was in the world of ideas, therefore, in the process of cognition, it is able to recall them, belongs to:
69. The source of knowledge is the memory of the soul about the world of ideas, he believed:
70. Philosopher who considered logic the main tool of knowledge:
Aristotle
71. Philosopher, student of Plato:
Aristotle
Aristotle
73. According to Aristotle, the human soul does not enter
mineral soul
74. The essence of the ethical teaching of Epicurus is that:
gotta enjoy life
75. Roman poet, follower of Epicurus, author of the poem "On the Nature of Things"
76. The statement: “It’s not what happens to us that matters, but how we feel about it” corresponds to the worldview:
77. Roman philosopher, teacher of Nero, author of the Letters to Lucilius, representative of Stoicism
78. The philosopher who lived in a barrel considered himself a “citizen of the world” and called for poverty, ignorance
Diogenes of Sinop
MEDIEVALISM
79. A characteristic feature of medieval philosophy is:
theocentrism
80. Which of the following features is not characteristic of medieval philosophical thought?
81. Theocentrism is a worldview position based on the idea of supremacy:
82. Philosophy in the Middle Ages occupied a subordinate position in relation to:
theology
83. The totality of religious doctrines and teachings about the essence and action of God:
theology
84. Works of early Christian literature not included in the biblical canon, i.e. recognized by the official church as "false"
Apocrypha
85. Eschatology is
The doctrine of the final fate of the world and man
86. Savior, deliverer from troubles, God's anointed
(Document)
n1.doc
IntroductionThe document contains test questions on the topics "Ancient Philosophy", "Philosophy of the Middle Ages", "Philosophy of the Renaissance", "Philosophy of the 20th Century" and "Eastern Philosophy". The author of the document does not have the keys and Not is a question designer. Tests are selected for self-study topics of the course "Philosophy" and self-examination of students' knowledge. The author of the document Ph.D. Sc., Associate Professor, Professor of KOU Stepanov A.V.
Test characteristics.
Closed type tests.
One answer out of five is correct, the rest are plausible.
Time per question 1 min.
Difficulty level "B" and "C"
Correct the answer is in bold text
Tests on the topic "Ancient Philosophy"
1. In antiquity, for the first time, I saw the essence of man in the soul, understood as rational thinking activity and morally oriented behavior
A) Pythagoras
IN) Socrates
C) Heraclitus
E) Democritus
2. "Logos", according to Heraclitus
A) morality
IN) universal law
C) the doctrine of the relativity of knowledge
D) the doctrine of beauty
E) the pursuit of truth
3. Aristotle considered the fundamental category
A) position
C) space
D) possession
E) essence
4. The moral position of the sophists
A) ethical relativism
C) rational ethics
C) hedonism
D) asceticism
E) altruism
5. The problem of man in ancient philosophy was first raised by
A) Socrates
B) Plato
C) Aristotle
E) Heraclitus
6. The essence of Plato's doctrine of knowledge is
A) the idea of reincarnation
IN) idea of recollection
C) the idea of divine revelation
D) reaching the truth
E) self-knowledge
7. The ancient Greek philosopher who carried out the synthesis and systematization of the entire complex of ancient scientific and philosophical knowledge
A) Aristotle
B) Parmenides
C) Plato
E) Zeno
8. The concepts of "existence" and "non-existence" introduced into philosophy
B) Heraclitus
WITH ) Parmenides
E) Aristotle
9. The ancient school, considering the problem of the material principle
A) the epicurean school
B) school of cynics
WITH) Milesian school
D) Eleatic school
A) Socrates
B) Plato
D) Democritus
E) Heraclitus
11. The concept of "autarchy" in the philosophy of the Stoics means
A) self-sufficiency
B) wisdom
C) virtue
D) admiration for wealth
E) condemnation of poverty
12. The representative of Cynic philosophy, who declared to A. Makedonsky: “Go away and do not block the sun for me”
A) Diogenes of Sinop
B) Seneca
C) Antisthenes
D) Marcus Aurelius
E) Aristotle
13. The form of government, in which power belongs to the middle class, according to Aristotle
A) a monarchy
B) democracy
WITH) polity
D) tyranny
E) aristocracy
14. For the first time, they shifted philosophical reflection from the problems of physics and space to the problem of man and his life as a member of society
A) stoics
B) sophists
C) Eleatics
E) Neoplatonists
15. What is common in the views of Democritus, Epicurus, Lucretius Cara:
A) The doctrine of ideas.
B) The problem of being.
c) The doctrine of atoms.
D) The doctrine of the world soul.
E) The problem of aporias.
16. In antiquity, the philosophy that proposed the ideal of a man of courage and not subject to circumstances, which turns hopelessness itself into a triumph over circumstances:
A) Epicureanism.
b) Stoicism.
C) Atomism.
D) Cynicism.
E) Neoplatonism.
17. An outstanding representative of the Eleatic philosophy, the author of aporias:
A) Zeno.
B) Heraclitus.
C) Democritus.
D) Pythagoras.
E) Thales.
18. An outstanding Roman orator and politician who combined Greek and Roman cultures, a Latin genius who spread Greek thought throughout the world:
A) Seneca.
B) Marcus Aurelius.
c) Cicero.
D) Plotinus.
E) Boethius.
19. Great Greek philosopher, founder of the Academy:
A) Plato.
B) Abbreviated.
C) Aristotle.
D) Epicurus.
E) Pythagoras.
20. What does the concept of "apathy" mean in the philosophy of the Stoics:
A) Refusal to lead a public life.
B) Ecstasy.
C ) Passionless and fearless perception of life.
D) Moral behavior.
E) Contempt for the foundations and norms of life.
21. The statement of Diogenes Laertes “The beginning of everything is a unit. to the unit, as to the cause, the indeterminate duality, as substance, is subject. numbers come from unity and indefinite two" characterizes the views:
A) Sophists.
b) Pythagoreans.
C) Atomists.
D) Milesians.
E) Eleatics.
22. The culture of which era was the ideal for the Renaissance:
A) Antiquity.
B) the Middle Ages.
C) Archaic.
D) Other East.
E) New time.
23. Representative of the peripatetic school, whose lectures were attended by up to 2000 people:
Theophrastus
Plato
Gorgias
Socrates
Democritus
24. Aristotle's successor in leadership of Lycaeus:
Theophrastus
Plato
Gorgias
Socrates
Plutarch
25. The relation of ideas and things in Plato:
A) An idea is a general concept of a thing.
b) Thing is the otherness of the idea, its copy.
C) Idea and thing are opposites.
D) An idea is the same as a thing.
E) An idea is a reflection of a thing.
26. The followers of Socrates, who denied generally accepted norms of morality and moral values, called for absolute personal freedom:
A) Sophists.
B) Epicureans.
c) Cynics.
D) Peripatetics.
E) Neoplatonists.
27. How ancient philosophy determined the position of a person:
A ) Man is one with the Cosmos.
B) Man is made in the image of God.
C) Man rises above the Cosmos.
D) Man is the creator of the Cosmos.
E) Man is the worst of the creations of the Cosmos.
28. The position of Socrates, according to which the source of good is knowledge, and the source of evil is human ignorance:
A) enlightenment
IN) ethical rationalism;
C) naturalism;
D) moral utopianism;
E) utilitarianism.
29. According to Socrates, virtue is ...
A) a sense of proportion;
C) life in harmony with nature;
C) obedience to the laws of the state;
D) wisdom;
E) external decency.
30. "First Philosophy" (metaphysics) is defined by Aristotle as a science...
A) about the knowledge of nature;
B) about politics;
C) about causes and beginnings, about beings as such;
D) about virtue;
E) about a person.
Tests on the topic "Philosophy of the Middle Ages"
1. Patristic literature, the totality of the philosophical, religious and socio-political teachings of the Church Fathers
A) patristics
B) scholasticism
C) realism
D) nominalism
E) conceptualism
2. The term "creationism" is translated from Latin as
A) foresight
IN) creation
C) providence
D) God the Father
E) prediction
3. The main feature characteristic of philosophical thinking medieval era
A) cosmocentrism
IN) theocentrism
C) pantheism
D) science-centrism
E) agnosticism
4. Direction to medieval philosophy, asserting that only concrete things really exist, and general concepts (universals) are perceived as names of things
A) creationism
B) pantheism
WITH ) nominalism
D) theocentrism
E) realism
5. One of the main problems of medieval philosophy
A) relation of faith and reason
C) search for an experimental method of cognition
C) achieving unity
D) overcoming death and resurrection of the dead
E) the problem of the identity of thinking and being
6. Scholasticism is characterized
A) subjection to theology
B) criticism of religion
C) a fundamental divergence from patristics
D) materialistic worldview
E) scientific research
7. The doctrine that only general concepts or universals have true reality
A) dualism
B) realism
C) materialism
D) agnosticism
E) nominalism
8. Pierre Abelard wrote an essay called
A ) Yes and no
C) Sum of Theology
C) About the city of God
D) Sum of Philosophy
E) Nicomachean ethics
9. Five indirect proofs of the existence of God developed
A ) F. Aquinas
C) N. Kuzansky
C) A. Blessed
D) A. Canterbury
E) W. Ockham
10. Philosophical doctrine according to which God is an impersonal principle, identical with nature
A) empiricism
C) atheism
D) pantheism
E) anthropocentrism
11. One of the "fathers of the church" of the Middle Ages, "Teacher of the West"
A) Aurelius Augustine
IN) S. Boethius
C) W. Ockham
D) P. Abelard
E) N. Kuzansky
12. Theocentrism, as a worldview, is
A) recognition that God is an absolute that determines the existence of nature, man and society
C) statement about the finiteness of earthly existence
C) definition of the world as an eternal cycle
D) characteristic of the repetition of being
E) chanting the joy of earthly life
13. A characteristic feature of medieval European philosophy is not
A) theocentrism
B) monism
C) creationism
D) providentialism
E) rationalism
14. The doctrine of the creation of the world, animate and inanimate nature in a single creative act
A) theocentrism
B) pantheism
C) realism
D) nominalism
E) creationism
15. The starting point of the moral doctrine of St. Augustine
A) boundless love for God
C) fear of punishment
C) natural law
D) customs and traditions
E) belief in the afterlife
16. The idea of divine predestination of the structure of society is mainly expressed in philosophy
A) revival
B) new age
WITH) Western Middle Ages
D) Marxism
E) Antiquities
17. City of the earth, according to Augustine the Blessed
C) the kingdom of God
WITH ) state
D) village
E) paradise
18. Man in medieval philosophy was considered as
A) the lowest creature in the hierarchy of creations
IN) the image and likeness of God and as part of the animal world
C) part of space
D) child of nature
E) a self-sufficient being
19. In the Middle Ages, philosophy acts as
A) "Servant of the Theology"
B) the cult of knowledge
C) joyful perception of life
D) human mind
E) the rational essence of man
20. The author of the famous thesis “I understand in order to believe!”
A) Thomas Aquinas
B) William of Ockham
C) Bonaventure
D) John Scot Eriugena
E) Pierre Abelard
23. Justification of God for the existence of evil in the world and society
A) teleology
B) theology
WITH) theodicy
D) theosophy
E) theogony
26. The Art of Interpreting Biblical Texts
A) dialectic
B) metaphysics
C) theology
D) apologetics
E) exegesis
27. The philosophy of the Middle Ages did not develop on the basis of this source
A) Plato's philosophy
B) Holy Scripture
C) neoplatonism
D) Aristotle's philosophy
E) Milesian philosophy
28. The nominalists (who affirmed the existence of things before concepts) include
A ) Pierre Abelard
B) St. Augustine
C) Eriugena
D) Thomas Aquinas
E) Anselm
29. In scholasticism, a supporter of realism, who recognized the universal "man in general"
A) Pierre Abelard
B) Duns Scott
C) William of Ockham
D) Anselm of Canterbury
E) John Roscellinus
30. Arab philosopher, who was called the "prince of doctors"
A) Al-Ghazali
C) Ibn Rushd
C) Al-Farabi
D) Ibn Sina
E) Al-Kindi
31. The statement of Al-Farabi: “... recklessness is similar to courage, wastefulness is similar to generosity, buffoonery is similar to wit, pretense is similar to the sincerity of a person” characterizes:
A) Skepticism.
B) Metaphysics.
C) Sophism.
D) Dialectic.
E) Dogmatism.
Tests on the topic "Philosophy of the Renaissance"
1. Representatives of the philosophy of the Renaissance:
A) F. Bacon, R. Descartes, J. Locke;
C) F. Aquinas, P. Abelard, D. Scott;
C) Heraclitus, Democritus, Zeno;
D) N. Kuzansky, J. Bruno, N. Copernicus;
E) Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot.
2.main feature Renaissance philosophy:
A) cosmocentrism;
B) theocentrism;
C) scientism;
D) technocracy;
e) anthropocentrism.
3. Characteristic of the Renaissance understanding of man:
A) a person is a social being;
B) man is a thinking being;
C) man is a social creation endowed with a soul;
D) man is a creator, an artist;
A) Marsilio Ficino
B) Coluccio Salutati;
C) Dante Alighieri;
D) Giordano Bruno;
E) Giovanni Pico della Mirandola.
5. An outstanding representative of the philosophy of the Renaissance, a follower and popularizer of the teachings of Epicurus:
A) Lorenzo Vala;
B) Nicholas of Cusa;
C) Avicenna;
D) Thomas Aquinas;
E) N.A. Berdyaev.
6. A characteristic feature of the natural philosophy of the Renaissance:
B) cosmocentrism;
WITH) pantheism;
D) mechanism;
E) materialism.
7. The largest thinker of the Renaissance, the cardinal philosopher, who created the dialectical doctrine of the coincidence of opposites:
A) Marsilio Ficino
B) Albert the Great
C) Nicolaus Copernicus;
D) Nicholas of Cusa;
E) Nicolo Machiavelli.
8. Founder of the heliocentric system of the world, Renaissance thinker:
A) Ptolemy
IN) Copernicus;
C) Archimedes
D) Laplace;
E) Galileo.
9. An outstanding philosopher of the Renaissance, burned at the stake by the Church Inquisition:
A) Leonardo da Vinci
C) N. Kuzansky;
C) L. Vala;
D) T. Campanella;
E ) J. Bruno.
10. Thinker of the Renaissance, author of the book "The Sovereign":
A) Leonardo da Vinci;
B) Michel de Montaigne;
C) Erasmus of Rotterdam;
D) Niccolo Machiavelli;
E) Thomas More.
11. The name of the ideal state of Tommaso Campanella:
A ) "City of Sun";
B) "Hyperurania";
C) "Virtuous City";
D) "Utopia";
E) "New Atlantis".
12. A French humanist of the 16th century, a skeptic thinker who used the essay genre to present his ideas:
A) Pierre Abelard
B) John Calvin
C) D. Diderot;
D) J.-J. Rousseau;
E) Michel de Montaigne.
13. Which of the thinkers of the Renaissance is the author of the book "The Sovereign"?
Leonardo da Vinci;
Michel de Montaigne;
Eraz of Rotterdam;
Niccolo Machiavelli;
Thomas More.
14. An outstanding representative of the philosophy of the Renaissance:
A) Aristotle
B) Thomas Aquinas
C) Avicenna;
D) Nicholas of Cusa;
E) N.A. Berdyaev.
15. The subject of knowledge, according to Kuzansky, is:
A) The world around man
B) Ideas that arise in the mind of a person only thanks to God
C) Thing in itself
E) Pantheistic god in unity with the sensible world of nature
16. The process of freeing society from church influence:
A) Secularization.
B) Socialization.
C) Insulation.
D) Sacralization.
E) Technization.
17. Which of these thinkers replaced geocentrism with heliocentrism:
A) Galileo
B ) N. Copernicus
C) N. Kuzansky
D) J. Bruno
A) Dante Alighieri.
B) Abelard.
C) Boccaccio.
D) Rotterdam.
E) Petrarch.
19. The beginning of the philosophy of politics in the Renaissance was laid by ...
A ) Machiavelli
B) J. Bruno
C) Mirandola
E) Campanella
20. Renaissance humanism means the doctrine of:
A) divine predestination of human life
b) human self-worth
C) the creation of man by God
D) the dependence of a person's fate on circumstances
E) meaninglessness of human life
21. The main feature of man in the philosophy of Pico della Mirandola:
A) in freedom of self-determination
B) the ability to walk in the ways of the Lord
C) in the capacity for virtue
D) in the ability to work creatively
E) in reasonableness
22. The main trend in the thinking, ideology and culture of the Renaissance:
A) Obscurantism
B) Fight against anthropocentrism
c) Transition from theocentric to anthropocentric understanding of the world
D) Striving for a peaceful existence
E) Return to the cosmocentric worldview
23.Authors social utopias Renaissance:
A) Machiavelli, Montesquieu
b) More, Campanella
C) Pomponazzi, Mirandolla
D) Cusa, Bruno
E) Copernicus, Galileo
24. The ancestor of pantheism is:
A) J. Bruno
b) Nicholas of Cusa
C) Thomas Aquinas
D) R. Bacon
E) Nicolaus Copernicus
25. Renaissance philosopher, who is called the "father of humanism"
A) N. Kuzansky
IN ) F. Petrarch
C) L. da Vinci
D) J. Bruno
E) N. Copernicus
26. The central problem of the philosophy of N. Cusa is
A) rational knowledge
C) the idea of "innate ideas"
C) the idea of monads
D) scientific ignorance
E) theory dual truth
27. The social theory of T. Mohr is estimated as
A) the fight against anthropocentrism
IN) utopian socialism
C) an illusory theory about the coming society
D) transition from theocentrism to anthropocentrism
E) Christian humanism
28. Philosopher of the Renaissance, author of the treatise "Scientific ignorance"
A ) N. Kuzansky
C) L. Valla
C) D. Bruno
D) M. Montaigne
A) matter
B) an absolute idea
WITH ) single
D) divine will
30. Renaissance thinker, who is rightly called the Columbus of heaven
A) N. Copernicus
IN) G. Galileo
C) J. Bruno
D) T. Campanella
E) L. da Vinci
Tests on the topic "Philosophy of the twentieth century."
1. A philosophical tradition that interprets cognition as a process of meaning formation that allows a person to expand the horizons of understanding not so much the external world as himself:
Pragmatism
Philosophy of Marxism
Existentialism
Analytical philosophy
Phenomenology of hermeneutics
2. The term "biosphere" was introduced by:
V.I.Vernadsky
de Chardin
Ch.Darwin
E. Suess
J.B. Lamarck
Marseilles
Frankl
Sartre
Heidegger
4. Euthanasia means:
clinical death
resuscitation
"silent death"
life after death
biological death
5. Philosopher, in his work "Words and Things" proclaimed: "Man will soon disappear ..."
M. Heidegger
F. Nietzsche
S. Kierkegaard
M. Foucault
A. Schopenhauer
6. Analytic philosophy analyzed:
Language
intuition
Thought
Feelings
7. Which of the following provisions is fundamental for Carl Jung's neo-Freudianism?
Apologia of the unconscious: man is an erotic being
The principle of humanism: a person is an incomplete being, striving for optimal development
The principle of "compensation": man is an inferior being
The principle of the "collective unconscious": a person is a being, an archetypal
The principle of "basic concern" man - a being striving for self-realization
8. "Language" according to the definition of M. Heidegger is:
philosophical text
Information encoding system
house of being
Experience the world
Means of communication
9. "Eastern" and "Western" paradigms of historical development are being explored
A) postmodern classics
IN ) in the concept of comparative studies
C) modern theorists of synergetics
E) supporters of traditional Japanese philosophy
10. Specify the highest organizing element of the noosphere:
Historical factors
natural conditions
Geographic environment
Human mind and society
Living matter
11. Discovered the mental motivation of the unconscious:
Marx
Hegel
Nice
Freud
12. The concepts of "border situation", "axial time" were introduced by a representative of existentialism:
K. Jaspers
G. Hegel
F. Schelling
K.Jung
O.Kont
13. The term "Futuroshock" characterizing the meeting with the society of the future was introduced by:
O. Toffler
S. Huntington;
A. Toynbee;
Z. Bzezhinsky;
I. Kant.
T.Mor;
M.Scheler;
Aristotle;
A. Camus.
F. Petrarch
O. Toffler
Z. Freud
T. Kuhn
Yu.Kristeva
R. Descartes
Montreal Union
Consumer Union
Roman club
green peace
Greek club
17. Exaggeration of the relativity of knowledge is called:
relativism
dogmatism
empiricism
formalism
fatalism
O. Toffler
Z. Freud
J. Fourastier
Yu.Kristeva
R. Descartes
19. Existential philosophy of J.P. Sartre is philosophy
B) despair
C) suffering
E) freedom and responsibility
20. Author of the “end of history” concept
A) A. Toynbee
B) P. Sorokin
WITH) F. Fukuyama
D) G. Haken
E) I. Prigogine
21. Representatives of the philosophical direction, who limited knowledge to sensory data (sensations), called "atomic facts" (L. Wittgenstein) or "protocol provisions" (Neurath)
A) existentialism
B) pragmatism
C) instrumentalism
D) neopositivism
E) personalism
22. Subject philosophical studies structuralism
A) objective reality given to a person in feelings
C) invariant relations (structures) in the dynamics of predominantly sociocultural phenomena of various orders
C) text research
D) structural levels of matter organization
E) stable system of interactions
23. J.P. Sartre, A. Camus, G. Marcel - representatives
A) neopositivism
IN ) existentialism
C) neo-Thomism
A) M. Heidegger
C) G. Gadamer
C) L. Wittgenstein
D) S. Kierkegaard
E) A. Schopenhauer
25. Archetypes, according to K. Jung, are:
A) the superpersonal unconscious
B) world unconscious
c) collective unconscious
D) unconscious
E) personal unconscious
26. The central concept of pragmatic philosophy
C) action
E) unconscious
27. Representatives of what direction were the Russian philosophers N. Fedorov, K. Tsiolkovsky, V. Vernadsky, A. Chizhevsky?
A) Neo-Kantianism
B) Hegelianism
C) intuitionism
D) irrationalism
e) cosmism
28. Philosophers - representatives of structuralism:
A) B. Russell, M. Schlick, L. Wittgenstein
B) J. Derrida, J. Deleuze, J. Baudrillard
C) J.P. Sartre, A. Camus, K. Jaspers
D) K. Levi-Strauss, M. Foucault, J. Lacan
E) G. Gadamer, E. Husserl, M. Heidegger
29. One of the concepts of psychoanalysis, meaning unconscious sexual attraction:
A) "I"
B) "It"
c) libido
D) sublimation
E) "Super-I"
30. Simulacrum is:
A) reality as it is
B) fictional world
C) a copy of reality
D) copy of reality
E) the real world
31. The generally accepted concept of space and time at the present time:
A) substantial
B) transcendental
C) quantum
D) energy
E ) relational
32. Which of the humanist thinkers of the twentieth century. substantiated the concept of "reverence for life"?
A ) A. Schweitzer
B) A.Pecchei
C) M. Gandhi
D) M. Heidegger
E) K. Jaspers
33. "Anxiety", "abandonment", "despair" - terms
A) phenomenology
B) structuralism
C) analytical philosophy
D ) existentialism
E) postpositivism
34. Who wrote that the purpose of life is self-improvement?
A) P. Florensky
B ) L. Tolstoy
C) F. Dostoevsky
D) S. Bulgakov
E) N. Berdyaev
35. Indicate the subject of the study of philosophical hermeneutics:
A) universal laws of being
B) logic
C ) text
D) self-organization
E) technique
36. J. Derrida offers in his philosophy:
A) renaissance of European philosophy
B) deconstruction of European culture
C) appeal to oriental culture
D) reformation of European culture
E) the revival of the ideals of antiquity
37. Philosophical and ideological orientation, which arose as a result of scientific and technical progress and scientific and technological revolution, absolutizing the role of science:
A) fatalism
B) realism
c) scientism
D) sensationalism
E) technocracy
38. Specify the most accurate definition of the anthroposociogenesis factor:
A) man is a political being
B) human specificity is related to the functions of natural language
C) man is an individual being
D) man is a social being
E) man is a producing creature
39. One of the founders of the "philosophy of life":
A) F. Nietzsche
B) L. Feuerbach
C) F. Schelling
D) G. Hegel
E) I. Fichte
40. Physicist of the early twentieth century, who announced the disappearance of matter:
A) W. Heisenberg
B) A. Einstein
C ) E.Mach
D) I. Newton
E) M. Faraday
A ) J. Derrida
B) J. Lyotard
C) F. Nietzsche
D) J. Deleuze
E) H. Gadamer
42. Psychic motivation of the unconscious was discovered by:
A) Z. Freud
B) G. Hegel
C) I.Kant
D) F. Nietzsche
E) K.Marx
43. The circle of understanding in hermeneutics includes:
A) pre-reasons, pre-history of consciousness
B) right view
c) foresight, pre-decision, pre-decision
D) meditation, looking inwards
E) strong determination
44. Who introduced the concept of "archetypes" into the philosophy of the unconscious?
A) E.Fromm
B ) K.Jung
C) Z. Freud
D) R. Carnap
E) E. Husserl
A) O. Spengler
B) Z. Freud
C) E.Fromm
D) M. Heidegger
E) K. Jung
46. Empirio-criticism is:
A) a stage in the development of positivism
B) interpretation of the achievements of science in order to substantiate religious dogma
C) philosophy of existence
D) philosophy of practical action
E) stage in the development of dialectics
47. The art and theory of interpretation, which aims to reveal the meaning of the text:
A) interpretation
B) cumulation
C) hermeneutics
D) axiology
E) exegesis
48. Specify the modern religious philosophical movement.
A) existentialism;
C) phenomenology;
C) structuralism;
D) hermeneutics;
E) neo-Thomism.
49. Philosophy " human existence» in the twentieth century:
A) phenomenology;
B) neopositivism;
C) postpositivism;
D) existentialism;
E) hermeneutics.
50. Which of the following definitions characterizes hermeneutics, which is one of the main currents in the philosophy of the twentieth century?
A) the philosophy of individual human existence;
C) philosophy of interpretation, understanding of texts;
C) the philosophy of the structural foundations of culture;
D) philosophy of the unconscious;
E) philosophy of linguistic reality.
51. Which trend in philosophy is Z. Freud a representative of?
psychoanalysis;
C) positivism;
D) neo-Thomism;
E) hermeneutics.
52. The philosophical trend of the twentieth century, which is the third historical form of positivism:
A) neopositivism;
C) phenomenology;
C) postpositivism;
D) structuralism;
E) empirio-criticism.
53. Indicate the name of the philosopher whose ideas are developed by neo-Thomism:
Plato;
Augustine the Blessed;
Thomas Aquinas;
W. Ockham;
G. Leibniz.
54. How is the term "existentialism" translated?
philosophy of essence;
philosophy of being;
philosophy of existence;
philosophy of love;
philosophy of science.
55. Which of the forms of being is at the center of the philosophy of existentialism?
being of nature;
existence of consciousness;
the existence of society;
individual being of a person;
existence of culture.
56. Specify the method of socio-humanitarian knowledge, characteristic of the philosophy of structuralism:
extrapolation method;
hypothetical-deductive;
dialectical;
structural and functional;
statistical.
57. Existential philosophers:
A) M. Heidegger, K. Jaspers
B) A. Schopenhauer, F. Nietzsche
C) E. Husserl, J. Lyotard
D) K.Marx, F.Engels
E) Z. Freud, K. Jung
A) K. Jaspers
B) S. Kierkegaard
C) M. Heidegger
D) J.P. Sartre
E) F. Nietzsche
59. The founder of the international research center "Club of Rome" is:
D. Forrester;
D. Meadows;
A. Peccei;
A. Toffler;
Z. Bzezhinsky.
60. Subject of philosophy of technology:
A) technology as a way of subjugating nature by man.
C) the phenomenon of technology in its essential characteristics, as a way of discovering the deep properties of being.
C) technology in its relationship with technological processes.
D) technology as a variety of technical means invented by man.
E) technique and technology in the sense of the history of their origin and development.
61. Antiscientism is…
A) fight against superstitions.
C) faith in the future of scientific and technological progress.
C) approval of the priority development of astronautics as the cutting edge of scientific and technological progress.
D) statement about the dangers of excessive knowledge for human health.
E) the philosophical concept of the inhuman essence of science and technology.
62. Scientism is…
A) a philosophical concept that absolutizes the role of science in the social and spiritual life of society.
C) the desire of the individual to acquire scientific knowledge.
C) a set of statements about the benefits of studying the history of science.
D) assertion of the advantages of mathematics over other sciences.
E) skepticism about the possibilities of science and technology.
63. Representative of post-positivism, who believed that the main source of the development of science is the competition of research programs:
A) P. Feyerabend
C) I. Lakatos
D) Z. Freud
E) N. Kuzansky
64. Man - a symbolizing creature - gave such a definition ...
C) K. Marx
C) Aristotle
D) Z. Freud
E ) E. Cassirer
65. Unconscious according to Adler, what is it?
Developed "archetypes" of images of the collective unconscious
Libido
dreams
Complex of sexual instincts
The instinct of superiority over other people, which allows you to compensate for feelings of inferiority
66. List the boundary situations according to K. Jaspers:
A ) death, love, guilt, suffering
B) guilt, responsibility, punishment
C) love, family, responsibility
D) death, sex, fate
E) suffering, duty, love
67. The organization of knowledge of society according to the type of "tree" J. Deleuze contrasts the organization of knowledge according to the type:
a) sheet
B) rhizomes
C) root
D) fetus
E) flower
68. "Positive" sciences, according to positivism, rely on:
A) a priori knowledge
B) deductive methods
C) intuition
D) facts of observations and experiments
E) inference
69. Specify the representatives of the philosophy of history of the twentieth century:
A ) A. Toynbee, K. Jaspers
B) O.Comte, E.Mach
C) A. Schopenhauer, F. Nietzsche
D) J.P. Sartre, A. Camus
E) C. Pierce, W. James
70. Worldview position according to which scientific knowledge is the highest cultural value
A) determinism
B) scientism
C) skepticism
D) ontologism
E) agnosticism
Tests on the topic "Eastern Philosophy"
1. The concept of "al-insan al-kamil" is translated as
A) spiritual city
B) perfect state
c) perfect man
D) eternal bliss
E) a place that doesn't exist
2. What is the name of the philosophy of light (illumination), which has developed in the teachings of al-Suhrawardi
A) falsafah
b) ishraq
D) averroism
A) Ibn Sina
B) Al-Kindi
c) As-Suhrawardi
D) Ibn Khaldun
E) Khoja Ahmed Yasawi
4. The concept of "Ikhwan as-Safa" is translated as
A) spiritual city
B) brothers of purity
C) a perfect person
D) eternal bliss
E) monotheism
5. Eastern philosopher, known in Europe under the Latin name Abubazer
A) Ibn Tufeil
B) Ibn Baja
C) al-Farabi
D) Ibn Rushd
E) al-Ghazali
6. The largest direction in Islam, uniting today up to 90 percent of all Muslims
A) Sunnism
D) Ismailism
E) Wahhabism
7. In ancient Egypt, it was believed that man is a multidimensional being. How many shells does it have?
E) seven
8. The concept of "Tawhid" means:
A) the dogma of the unity and uniqueness of Allah
B) polytheism
C) dualism
D) ostracism
E) skepticism
9. In the works of representatives of what direction did the pantheistic concept of the unity of being (God and the universe) receive philosophical justification - al-wahdat al-wujud
A) falsafah
B ) Sufism
C) Hanbalism
D) Ismailism
E) Wahhabism
10. As in Babylon they called the god of the Sun, justice and justice:
B) Shamash
E) Tashmuza
11. What philosophical schools in India do not recognize the law of karma?
Vedanta
Mimansa
Charvak
Jainism
lu tzu
Han Fei
Confucius
Lao Tzu
Xun Tzu
13. What is the essence of human life according to the Buddha?
In communication
In labor
in misery
In communion with the truth
In life in society
14. The central principle of virtue in the philosophy of Confucius:
The path of the "golden mean"
Deliverance from suffering
For each person his
The path of communion with divine beings
Needs Satisfaction
15. The largest representative of Eastern peripatetism:
A) Al-Kindi
B) Ibn-Baja
C) Abai
D) I. Altynsarin
e) Al-Farabi
16. Which of the listed thinkers belongs to the Kazakh enlighteners?
A) A.Kunanbaev, Ch.Valikhanov, I.Altynsarin
B) Al-Farabi, Al-Ghazali
C) Avicenna, Averroes
D) M.Kashgari, H.A.Yassawi
E) Y. Balasaguni, Nizami, Saadi
17. The founder of the Jain doctrine is considered:
A) Confucius
B) Laozi
C) Charvak
D) Buddha
e) Mahavir Vardhamana
18. Author of the treatise "Views of the inhabitants of a virtuous city":
A) Al-Kindi
B) Al-Ghazali
C ) Al-Farabi
D) Ibn Sina
E) Ibn-Rushd
19. The ideological foundation of the state ideology of China was the teaching:
A) Emperor Chin-Mo
B) Confucius
C) Mo Tzu
D) Buddhas
E) Laozi
20. Al-Farabi translated the works of which philosopher into Arabic, accompanying them with comments?
A) Confucius
B) Heraclitus
C) Pythagoras
D) Aristotle
E) Socrates
21. Science proposed by Shakarim Kudaiberdiev for introduction to the education system:
A) the science of justice
B) life science
C) the science of goodness
D) human science
e) the science of conscience
22. Founder of Taoism:
A) Confucius
B) Mo Tzu;
WITH) Lao Tzu;
D) Gautama;
E) Meng Zi.
23. The natural way of things in ancient Chinese philosophy:
E) Dao.
24. One of the main currents of ancient Chinese philosophy:
A) Buddhism
B) Sufism
C) peripateticism;
D) Jainism;
E) Confucianism.
25. Ancient Indian religious and philosophical doctrine, now one of the world religions:
A) Buddhism
C) brahmanism;
D) Jainism;
E) charvaka-lokoyata.
26. Nirvana is:
A) a state of detachment, the extinction of consciousness;
B) first man
C) the art of breathing;
D) a chain of rebirths of living beings;
E) global design.
27. Specify: which of the following philosophical schools belong to the concepts of "Yin" and "Yang"?
Buddhism;
yoga;
Brahmanism;
Moism;
Taoism.
28. Select a representative of the philosophy of ancient India:
A) Seneca
B) Parmenides
D) Gina;
E) Lao Tzu.
29. Which of the thinkers listed below is from Otrar?
A) Yassaui;
IN) Al-Farabi;
C) Balasaguni;
D) Dulati;
E) Kashgari.
30. Which of the Arab-Muslim philosophers owns the "Book of Healing"?
A) al-Farabi;
B) al-Ghazali;
c) Ibn Sina;
D) Ibn Rushd;
E) al-Kindi.
31. Outstanding philosopher and physician of the Arab-Muslim Middle Ages, author of the "Canon of Medical Science":
A) Al-Farabi;
B) Ibn Sina;
C) Ibn Rushd;
D) Ibn Tufayl;
E) Ibn Baja.
33. Against whom was Ibn Rushd's book "The Refutation of the Refutation" directed?
A) Al-Farabi;
B) Al-Biruni;
c) Al-Ghazali;
A) Al-Ghazali;
B) Yassaui;
C) Ibn Arabi;
E) Al-Ansari.
35. Arab philosopher who developed the doctrine of dual truth:
Al-Farabi
Al-Biruni
Al Ghazali
Avicenna
Averroes
All countries / Greece/ Ancient Greek philosophers
ancient greek philosophers
Ancient Greek philosophy is a philosophy that arose in Ancient Greece. The philosophy of ancient Greece is a set of teachings that developed from the 6th century BC to the 6th century AD. This millennium of the development of philosophical ideas demonstrates an amazing commonality, an obligatory focus on uniting nature, man and gods in a single cosmic universe. In many ways, this is due to the pagan roots of Greek philosophy. For the Greeks, nature is the main absolute, it was not created by the gods, the gods themselves are part of nature and personify the main natural elements. Man, on the other hand, does not lose his original connection with nature, but lives not only “by nature”, but also “by establishment”. The human mind among the Greeks was freed from the power of the gods, the Greek respects them and will not offend, but, in his Everyday life will rely on the arguments of reason, relying on himself and knowing that man is happy not because he is loved by the gods, but because the gods love man because he is happy.
The most important discovery of the human mind for the Greeks is the law. The nature of Greek life explains the trust of the Greeks in reason, theory, and the worship of the impersonal absolute (nature) - the constant closeness and even inseparability of physics (the doctrine of nature) and metaphysics (the doctrine of the fundamental principles of being). Contemplation - consideration of the problems of worldview in the unity of nature, gods, man - served as a justification for the norms of human life, the position of man in the world, ways to achieve piety, justice and even personal happiness.
Early Greek natural philosophy is a way of philosophizing and a way of understanding the world. Actually, the cosmos is the cosmic world of human everyday life. In such a world, everything is correlated, adjusted and arranged: earth and rivers, sky and sun - everything serves life. The natural environment of a person, his life and death, the bright transcendental world of the gods, all the vital functions of a person are described earlier by Greek natural philosophers clearly and figuratively. The cosmos is not an abstract model of the universe, but the human world, however, unlike the finite man, it is eternal and immortal.
Thanks to the three most prominent representatives of Greek philosophy - Socrates, Plato and Aristotle - , for about a thousand years became the center of Greek philosophy. Socrates for the first time in history raises the question of personality with its decisions dictated by conscience, and with its values. Plato created philosophy as a complete worldview-political and logical-ethical system; Aristotle - science as a research and theoretical study of the real world.
In general, ancient Greek philosophy gave a fairly meaningful, orderly picture of the world. Usually, the beginning of ancient Greek philosophy is associated with the name of Thales of Miletus (625 - 547 BC), the end - with the decree of the Roman emperor Justinian on the closure of philosophical schools in Athens (529 AD).
Thales
Thales (625 - 547 BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician from Miletus (Asia Minor). He is a representative of Ionic natural philosophy and the founder of the Milesian (Ionian) school, from which the history of European science begins. Traditionally considered the founder of Greek philosophy (and science) - he invariably opened the list of "seven wise men" who laid the foundations of Greek culture and statehood. The name Thales already in the 5th century BC became a household name for the sage. Thales was called the "father of philosophy" and its "ancestor" already in antiquity.
Thales was a noble Phoenician family and received a good education in his homeland. Thales was a merchant and traveled a lot. For some time he lived in, in Thebes and Memphis, where he studied with the priests, studied the causes of floods, and demonstrated a method for measuring the height of the pyramids. It is believed that it was he who “brought” geometry from Egypt and introduced the Greeks to it. His activities attracted followers and students who formed the Milesian (Ionian) school, of which Anaximander and Anaximenes are best known today.
Thales was "a subtle diplomat and a wise politician"; he tried to rally the cities of Ionia into a defensive alliance against the power of the Achaemenids. In addition, Thales was a close friend of the Milesian tyrant Thrasybulus. Information about the life of Thales is scarce and contradictory, often anecdotal.
Being a military engineer in the service of King Lydia Croesus, Thales, in order to facilitate the crossing of the troops, launched the Galis River into a new channel. Not far from the city of Mitel, he designed a dam and a drainage canal and himself supervised their construction. This construction significantly lowered the water level in Galis and made it possible for the troops to cross.
In the era of Thales, the Greeks, and the whole world, experienced a series of amazing discoveries. Thales "discovered" the constellation Ursa Minor for the Greeks as a guiding tool; earlier this constellation was used by the Phoenicians. He was the first to discover the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator and drew five circles on the celestial sphere: the arctic circle, the summer tropic, the celestial equator, the winter tropic, and the antarctic circle. He learned to calculate the time of the solstices and equinoxes, established the unequal intervals between them.
Thales was the first to point out that the Moon shines by reflected light; that eclipses of the Sun occur when it is covered by the Moon. He predicted a solar eclipse (585 BC), after which he became famous. Thales was the first to determine the angular size of the Moon and the Sun; he found that the size of the Sun is 1/720 of its circular path, and the size of the Moon is the same part of the lunar path. We can say that Thales created a "mathematical method" in the study of the motion of celestial bodies. In addition, Thales introduced a calendar following the Egyptian model (in which the year consisted of 365 days, divided into 12 months of 30 days, and five days remained falling out).
Thales also understood geometry. Thales was the first to formulate and prove that the vertical angles are equal, that there is an equality of triangles along one side and two angles adjacent to it, that the angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal, that the diameter divides the circle into two equal parts, and also that the inscribed angle, based on the diameter is straight.
Thales knew how to determine the distance from the coast to the ship, for which he used the similarity of triangles. IN
This method is based on a theorem later called the Thales theorem: if parallel lines intersecting the sides of an angle cut off equal segments on one side of it, then they cut off equal segments on its other side. While in Egypt, Thales amazed Pharaoh Amasis by being able to accurately determine the height of the pyramid, waiting for the moment when the length of the shadow of the stick becomes equal to its height, and then measured the length of the shadow of the pyramid.
When Thales, because of his poverty, was reproached for the uselessness of philosophy, he, having made a conclusion about the upcoming harvest of olives by observing the stars, hired all the oil presses in Miletus and Chios even in the winter. He hired them for nothing (because no one gave more), and when the time came and the demand for them suddenly increased, he began to rent them out at his own discretion. Having thus collected a lot of money, he showed that philosophers can easily get rich if they wish, but this is not something they care about. Harvest Thales predicted "by observing the stars", that is, thanks to knowledge.
According to Thales, "water is the best." He announced that the whole world, everything that exists is formed from water. Everything is formed from water by its solidification / freezing, as well as evaporation; When it condenses, water becomes earth; when it evaporates, it becomes air. The reason for the formation / movement is the spirit “nesting” in the water. According to Thales, nature, both living and inanimate, has a driving principle, which is called by such names as soul and God. The cosmos is animated and full of divine powers. The soul, as an active force and a bearer of rationality, participates in the divine.
Thales assumed that the Earth floats in water (like a piece of wood, a ship, or some other body, which, by nature, tends to float in water); earthquakes, whirlwinds and the movements of the stars are due to the fact that everything sways on the waves due to the mobility of water. The sun and other celestial bodies feed on the vapors of this water. The stars are made of earth, but, at the same time, they are red-hot; and the Sun and Moon are of an earthy composition (consist of the earth). Also, he believed that the Earth is at the center of the universe; When the Earth is destroyed, the whole world will collapse. That is, Thales argued that the Earth, as a land, as a body itself, is physically supported by a certain “support”, which has the properties of water (non-abstract, that is, concrete fluidity, instability, etc.). And around the Earth there is a circulation of celestial phenomena, and, thus, it is Thales who is the founder of the geocentric system of the world.
Unfortunately, the writings of Thales have not survived. It is reported that his entire legacy was only 200 verses written in hexameter. However, it is possible that Thales did not write anything at all, and everything known about his teaching comes from secondary sources.
The value of the philosophy of Thales lies in the fact that it captures the beginning of philosophical reflection on the physical world; the difficulty of studying it is that, due to the lack of reliable sources, it is easy for Thales to attribute thoughts inherent in early period Greek philosophy in general.
Anaximander
Anaximander of Miletus (610 - 540 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher, student of Thales of Miletus and teacher of Anaximenes. He is also the author of the first Greek scientific work written in prose. Introduced the term "law", applying the concept of social practice to nature and science. For the first time in Greece, he installed a gnomon - the simplest sundial and improved the Babylonian sundial, which had the shape of a spherical bowl - the so-called scaphis.
Anaximander is credited with one of the first formulations of the law of conservation of matter. It was he who introduced a different concept of the origin of all things - apeiron. This indefinite substance "embraces all worlds." Apeiron, as a result of a vortex-like process, is divided into physical opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry, and so on, the interaction of which generates a spherical cosmos. The confrontation of the elements in the emerging cosmic vortex leads to the appearance and separation of substances. In the center of the vortex is "cold" - the Earth, surrounded by water and air, and outside - fire. Under the influence of fire, the upper layers of the air shell turn into a hard crust. This sphere of solidified aer begins to burst with vapors of the boiling earth's ocean. The shell does not withstand and swells. At the same time, it must push the bulk of the fire beyond the boundaries of our world. This is how the sphere of fixed stars arises, and the pores in the outer shell become the stars themselves. Anaximander considered the celestial bodies not as separate bodies, but as “windows” in opaque shells that hide fire.
Anaximander made the first map of the Earth. The earth looks like part of a column - a cylinder, diameter
the base of which is three times the height: "of two flat surfaces, we walk along one, and the other is opposite to it." According to his theory, the Earth hovers in the center of the world, without relying on anything. The earth is surrounded by gigantic tubular rings-tori filled with fire. In the closest ring, where there is little fire, there are small holes - stars. In the second ring with stronger fire there is one large hole - the Moon. It can partially or completely overlap (this is how Anaximander explains the change lunar phases and lunar eclipses). In the third, farthest ring, there is the largest hole, the size of the Earth; through it shines the strongest fire - the Sun. The universe of Anaximander closes the heavenly fire.
Anaximander believed that all heavenly bodies are at different distances from the Earth. Order
following the principle: the closer it is to heavenly fire and, therefore, the farther from the Earth, the brighter it is. It is assumed that Anaximander's Universe is based on a mathematical principle: all distances are multiples of three. Anaximander made an attempt to determine the numerical parameters of the system of the world. The size of the Sun's ring is 27 or 28 times the size of the Earth's cylinder, the Moon's ring is 19 times the size of the Earth. The universe, according to Anaximander, develops on its own, without the intervention of the Olympian gods. The Universe is thought to be centrally symmetrical; hence the Earth, which is in the center of the Cosmos, has no reason to move in any direction. Thus, Anaximander was the first to suggest that the Earth rests freely in the center of the world without support.
The final stage in the emergence of the world is the appearance of living beings. Anaximander suggested that all living things originated from the sediments of the dried seabed. All living things are generated by moisture evaporated by the sun; when the ocean boils away, exposing the land, living beings arise "from the heated water with the earth" and are born "in moisture, enclosed within a silty shell." That is, natural development, according to Anaximander, includes not only the emergence of the world, but also the spontaneous generation of life.
Anaximander considered the universe to be like a living being. Unlike ageless time, it is born, reaches maturity, grows old and must die in order to be reborn.
Heraclitus
Heraclitus of Ephesus (544-483 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher. Founder of the first historical or original form of dialectics. Heraclitus was known as the Grim or Dark, and his philosophical system contrasted with the ideas of Democritus. He is credited with the authorship of the famous phrase "Everything flows, everything changes."
Heraclitus was born and lived in. According to some sources, he belonged to the family of basileus (priest-kings with purely nominal power), descendants of Androclus, however, voluntarily renounced the privileges associated with the origin in favor of his brother. Heraclitus, "having hated people, retired and began to live in the mountains, feeding on pasture and herbs." Heraclitus "was no one's listener." He was familiar with the views of philosophers Milesian school, Pythagoras, Xenophanes. He also did not have direct students, however, his intellectual influence on subsequent generations of ancient thinkers is significant.
Heraclitus, a materialist and dialectician, considered fire to be the fundamental principle of all things, for it is the most mobile and capable of change. From the fire came the world as a whole, individual things and even souls. Fire is the most dynamic, changeable of all the elements. Therefore, for Heraclitus, fire became the beginning of the world, while water is only one of its states. Fire condenses into air, air turns into water, water into earth (“the way down”, which is replaced by the “way up”). The Earth itself, on which we live, was once a red-hot part of the universal fire, but then it cooled down. Changes between fire, sea, and earth balance each other; pure or ethereal fire plays a decisive role.
Souls are made of fire; they arise from it and return to it, moisture completely absorbed by the soul,
leads her to death. The fire of the soul is correlated with the fire of the world. The awake, the sleeping, and the dead are correlated according to the degree of fieryness in the soul. In a dream, the souls are partially separated from the world fire and, thus, their activity is reduced.
The life of nature is a continuous process of movement. “This cosmos is the same for everyone; it is and will be an ever-living fire, steadily kindling and gradually fading away.” This equally applies to the "psyche" - the ideal-subjective beginning of life. Psyche, like nature, has a “self-growing logos”. Logos is the world soul, law, meaning, embracing the Cosmos.
Heraclitus establishes 4 different types of connection between apparent opposites:
a) the same things produce the opposite effect: “The sea is the purest and dirtiest water: for fish it is drinkable and saving, for people it is unfit for drinking and destructive”; "Pigs enjoy mud more than pure water"; "The fairest of apes is ugly in comparison to man."
b) different aspects of the same things can find opposite descriptions (writing is linear and round).
c) good and desirable things, such as health or rest, look possible only if we recognize their opposite: “Sickness makes health pleasant and good, hunger makes satiety, fatigue makes rest.”
D) some opposites are essentially connected, because they follow each other, are pursued by each other and by nothing but themselves. So hot-cold is a hot-cold continuum, these opposites have one essence, one common for the whole pair - temperature. Also, the day-night pair - the temporal meaning of “day” will be common to the opposites included in it.
In Heraclitus, God looks like immanent things or as the sum of pairs of opposites. Heraclitus is not
associated god with the need for worship or service. Wisdom consists in truly understanding how the world works. Only God can be wise, man is endowed with reason and intuition, but not wisdom. God is a common connecting element for all opposite ends of any oppositions. The total plurality of things, thus, forms a single, connected, definite complex - unity.
The gloomy and contradictory legends about the circumstances of the death of Heraclitus (“he ordered to smear himself with manure and, lying like that, died”, “became the prey of dogs”) are interpreted by some researchers as evidence that the philosopher was buried according to Zoroastrian customs. And the emperor Marcus Aurelius writes in his memoirs that Heraclitus died of dropsy, and smeared himself with manure as a remedy for the disease.
Parmenides
Parmenides (520 - 450 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher, founder and main representative Eleatic school. It is to him that the beginnings of metaphysics go back. He turned to the issues of being and cognition, laying the foundation of ontology and the origins of epistemology; shared truth and opinion.
Parmenides came from a noble and wealthy family; he was distinguished by incomprehensibility and even a certain madness. His poem "On Nature" has come down to us. In it, the philosopher discusses the issues of knowledge and being. Parmenides reasoned that there is only eternal and unchanging Being, which is identified with thinking. According to his logic, it is impossible to think about non-existence, which means that it does not exist. After all, the thought “there is something that is not there” is contradictory. Being is generated by nobody and nothing; otherwise one would have to admit that it originated from Non-Being, but there is no Non-Being. There is no nonexistence, because it is impossible to think about it. In addition, being is not subject to corruption and death; otherwise it would turn into Non-Being, and Non-Being does not exist. Being has no past or future. Being is pure present. It is motionless, homogeneous, perfect and limited; has the shape of a ball.
The following statements of Parmenides have come down to us: being is one, and there cannot be 2 or more "beings".
Otherwise, they would have to be delimited from each other - by Non-Being (and there is none). Being is continuous (single), that is, it has no parts. If being has parts, then the parts are delimited from each other - by Non-Being (and there is none). If there are no parts and if being is one, then there is no movement and no multiplicity in the world. Otherwise, one Being must move relative to the other. Since there is no movement and multiplicity and Being is one, then there is neither emergence nor destruction. So in the event of occurrence (destruction) there must be Non-Being (but there is no Non-Being). Being always stays in the same place.
“Parmenides is a thinker of truly extraordinary depth,” Socrates said in Plato’s Theaetetus.
Protagoras
Protagoras (481 - 411 BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher, the most prominent representative of the sophists. Also, he is referred to as skeptics and materialists. He gained fame thanks to his teaching activities during his many years of wandering. Protagoras owns the famous thesis "Man is the measure of all things."
Protagoras in his youth was engaged in carrying weights for money. Once Democritus met him with a bundle of firewood. Surprised at how rationally the firewood was stacked in bundles, he invited Protagoras to become his student. However, much points to the anecdotal nature of this story, referring to the fact that Protagoras was much older than Democritus. And many even believe that Democritus (along with Plato) was one of those philosophers who experienced the greatest influence of Protagoras.
Protagoras won fame not only in many Greek cities, but also in Sicily and in,
precisely because of his teaching profession. He took high fees for his teaching - this allowed him to travel a lot. His lectures were a success in the homes of famous and wealthy people interested in culture. From 484 to 406 BC, he closely communicated in Athens with Pericles and Euripides.
The philosopher Protagoras is a pupil of the Persian magicians, and also the founder of the sophistic way of life. Protagoras is also known for the fact that he laid the foundation for scientific grammar - the difference between types of sentences, genders of adjectives and nouns, moods of verbs and tenses. He also took on questions of correct speech. Protagoras enjoyed great prestige among his predecessors. He is the main character of the dialogue of one of the works of Heraclides of Pontus and Plato.
Protagoras was a sensualist and taught that the world is as it is presented in the senses of man. "Man is the measure of all things that exist, that they exist, and that do not exist, that they do not exist" (in other words: since people differ from each other, there is no objective truth). "How we feel is how it really is." "Everything is as it appears to us."
Protagoras points to the relativity of our knowledge, to the element of subjectivity in it. Subjectivism was understood by Protagoras as a conclusion from the teachings of Heraclitus about the universal fluidity of things: if everything changes every moment, then everything exists only insofar as it can be grasped by an individual at one time or another; everything can be said as something one, so, at the same time, and something else, contradicting it.
But, not everyone was ready to accept the philosophy of Protagoras. In 411 BC in Athens, for the essay “On the Gods”, in which he categorically doubts the existence of celestials, he was accused of dishonor and godlessness and expelled. After that, he soon died during a shipwreck on the way to Sicily.
Democritus
Democritus of Abdera (460 - 370 BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of atomistics and materialistic philosophy.
Born in the city of Abdera in Thrace. During his life he traveled a lot, studying the philosophical views of various peoples (Ancient Egypt, Babylon, Persia,,). Democritus spent a lot of money on these trips, inherited from him. Waste of inheritance, in those days, was prosecuted in court. At the trial, instead of defending himself, Democritus read out excerpts from his work, The Great World Construction, and was acquitted: fellow citizens decided that his father's money had been well spent.
Democritus was a very strange man. He constantly left the city, hiding in cemeteries, where, far from the bustle of the city, he indulged in reflections. In addition, Democritus, for no apparent reason, burst into laughter, human affairs seemed so ridiculous to him against the background of the great world order. It was for this habit of his that Democritus earned the nickname "The Laughing Philosopher." Many considered Democritus insane, and even invited the famous physician Hippocrates to examine him. But, he ruled that Democritus is absolutely healthy, both physically and mentally, and approved that Democritus is one of smartest people with whom he had to communicate.
Democritus, in fact, was the first to widely expand the anthropological aspects of ancient Greek philosophy, discussing such issues as man, god, state, the role of the sage in the policy. Democritus believed that the true existing being cannot, by itself, either arise or disappear. Democritus was the first to suggest that the world is made up of atoms. At the same time, atoms are indivisible and immutable particles of matter; they are in constant motion, and differ from each other only in form, order, size and position. Atoms, according to this theory, move in empty space (the Great Void, as Democritus said) randomly, collide and, due to the correspondence of shapes, sizes, positions and orders, either stick or fly apart.
The compounds formed hold together and thus produce complex bodies. Movement itself is a property naturally inherent in atoms. Bodies are combinations of atoms. The diversity of bodies is due both to the difference in the atoms that compose them, and to the difference in the order of assembly, just as different words are made up of the same letters. Atoms cannot touch, since everything that does not have emptiness inside it is indivisible, that is, a single atom. Therefore, there are always at least small gaps of emptiness between two atoms, so that even in ordinary bodies there is emptiness. It follows from this that when atoms approach at very small distances, repulsive forces begin to act between them. At the same time, mutual attraction is also possible between atoms, according to the principle “like attracts like”. In essence, this is a clear statement of the principle of inertia - the basis of all modern physics. Thin shells (images) of things that act on the sense organs emanate from the bodies, separate. But, sensory perception gives only "dark" knowledge about things; "bright", more subtle knowledge is achieved through the mind. Democritus was "the most subtle of all the ancient thinkers".
The Great Void is spatially infinite. In the initial chaos of atomic movements in the Great
A vortex spontaneously forms in the void. The symmetry of the Great Void is broken inside the whirlwind, where the center and periphery appear. Heavy bodies formed in a vortex tend to accumulate near the center of the vortex. The difference between light and heavy is not qualitative, but quantitative, and this is already a significant progress. In their aspiration to the center of the vortex, heavier bodies displace lighter ones, and they remain closer to the periphery of the vortex. In the center of the world, the Earth is formed, consisting of the heaviest atoms. Something like a protective film is formed on the outer surface of the world, separating the cosmos from the surrounding Great Void. Since the structure of the world is determined by the aspiration of atoms to the center of the vortex, the world of Democritus has a spherically symmetrical structure.
However, he was not a supporter of the theory of a spherical Earth. If the Earth were a ball, then the sun, setting and rising, would be crossed by the horizon along an arc of a circle, and not in a straight line, as it really is. According to Democritus, the order of the luminaries is as follows: the Moon, Venus, the Sun, other planets, stars (as the distance from the Earth increases). At the same time, the farther away from us the luminary, the slower (in relation to the stars) it moves. In addition, Democritus believed that centrifugal force prevents the fall of celestial bodies on Earth. Democritus also owns the brilliant conjecture that the Milky Way is a multitude of stars located at such a small distance from each other that their images merge into a single faint glow.
The worlds are infinite in number and differ from each other in size. All worlds move in different directions, because all directions and all states of motion are equal. At the same time, the worlds can collide, collapsing. If the formation of the world is taking place now, then somewhere it must take place both in the past and in the future; currently different worlds are at different stages of development. In the course of its movement, the world, the formation of which has not ended, may accidentally penetrate the boundaries of the fully formed world and be captured by it (this is how Democritus explained the origin of the heavenly bodies in our world).
Democritus considered the basic principle of human existence to be in a state of benevolent, serene disposition of the spirit, devoid of passions and extremes. This is not just a simple sensual pleasure, but a state of "peace, serenity and harmony." Democritus believed that all evil and misfortune happens to a person due to the lack of necessary knowledge. From this he concluded that the elimination of problems lies in the acquisition of knowledge. Democritus was a supporter of ancient democracy and an opponent of the slave-owning aristocracy.
The writings of ancient authors mention about 70 different works of Democritus, of which, to date, not one has survived. There is a legend that Plato ordered to buy up and destroy all the works of Democritus, his philosophical antagonist.
Socrates
Socrates (469 - 399 BC) is an ancient Greek philosopher whose teaching marks a turn in philosophy - from consideration of nature and the world to consideration of man. His work opened a new direction in the development of ancient philosophy. He directed the attention of philosophers to the importance of the human personality. Socrates is called the first philosopher in the proper sense of the word. In the person of Socrates, philosophizing thinking for the first time turns to itself, exploring its own principles and methods.
Socrates was the son of the sculptor Sophroniscus and the midwife Fenareta, he had an older brother by his mother, Patroclus, who inherited his father's property. Born on the 6th Farhelion on an unclean day of the Athenian calendar, Socrates became a "pharmacist", that is, a life-long priest of health of the Athenian state without maintenance, and in archaic times he could be sacrificed by the verdict of the people's assembly in order to solve social problems that had arisen. In his youth, he studied the arts with Damon and Conon, listened to Anaxagoras and Archelaus, knew how to read and write, however, he did not leave any compositions behind him. He was married by a second marriage to a woman named Xanthippe and had several sons from her, the youngest of whom was seven years old at the time of the philosopher's death.
Socrates led the life of an Athenian parasite and a beggar sage and never left Attica in peacetime. He was famous as an invincible debater and unmercenary, refusing expensive gifts and always walking in old clothes and barefoot. Socrates believed that noble people would be able to govern the state without the participation of philosophers, but, defending the truth, he was often forced to take an active part in the public life of Athens.
Participated in the Peloponnesian War - fought at Potidea, at Delia, at Amphipolis. He defended the strategists condemned to death from the unfair trial of the demos, including the son of his friends Pericles and Aspasia. He was the mentor of the Athenian politician and commander Alcibiades, saved his life in battle.
Socrates noticed for the first time that previous philosophers did not answer the questions: "how to live?" and “how to think?”. True knowledge presupposes a person's knowledge of himself. Hence the famous formula: "Know thyself." The highest task of knowledge is not theoretical, but practical - the art of living. Socrates spent his whole life in disputes and conversations. He believed that on the paths of a monologue, a lonely thought lies false knowledge, imaginary wisdom. Socrates discovered the method of maeutics - a method of finding the truth by confronting opposing opinions about a subject, eliminating them by posing new questions. Socrates argued that morality and virtue are identical with knowledge. A person who knows what good is will not do evil. Evil deeds are born only by ignorance, and no one is evil out of good will. “Know thyself” is the point of contact between philosophy, religion and psychology. Self-knowledge is work on oneself; it underlies all culture, all practice and creativity. This call is addressed not only to the individual, but also to the nations.
Man for Socrates is a microcosm, reflecting the social cosmos. It is important that a person has
meaningful picture of this cosmos. Socrates compared his methods of research with the "art of the midwife"; his method of questions, involving a critical attitude to dogmatic statements, was called "Socratic irony." Socrates did not write down his thoughts, believing that this weakens his memory. And he led his students to a true judgment through a dialogue, where he asked a general question, having received an answer, asked the next clarifying question, and so on until the final answer. At the same time, the opponent, knowing himself, was often forced to admit that he was ridiculous.
Socrates saved the life of Alcibiades (if Alcibiades died, he could not harm Athens). With one large club, he dispersed the Spartan phalanx, which was about to throw spears at the wounded Alcibiades, not a single enemy warrior wanted the dubious glory of killing, or at least wounding the elderly sage. In 399 BC, the inhabitants charged Socrates with the fact that "he does not honor the gods that the city honors, but introduces new deities and is guilty of corrupting youth." Socrates rejected all accusations of blasphemy and corrupting youth and declared "that there is no man more independent, just and reasonable than Socrates." When Socrates was offered to impose a fine, he neither imposed it himself nor allowed his friends, but, on the contrary, even said that to impose a fine on oneself means to plead guilty. Then, when his friends wanted to kidnap him from prison, he did not agree and, it seems, even laughed at them, asking if they knew of a place outside of Attica where there would be no access to death.
Before his death, Socrates asked to sacrifice a rooster to Asclepius (usually this rite was performed as gratitude for recovery), thus symbolizing his death, as recovery, liberation from earthly shackles. According to Socrates, the soul of the philosopher does not resist this liberation, therefore, he is calm in the face of death. Socrates was poisoned by hemlock. “Socrates walked at first, then said that his legs were getting heavy, and lay down on his back: this is what the man ordered. When Socrates lay down, he felt his feet and legs, and a little later - again. Then he squeezed his foot hard and asked if he felt it. Socrates answered no. After that, he again felt his shins and, gradually moving his hand up, showed us how the body was getting cold and stiff. Finally, he touched me for the last time and said that when the cold approaches the heart, it will go away. A little later he shuddered, and the attendant opened his face: Socrates' gaze stopped. Seeing this, Crito closed his mouth and eyes.
Xenophon
Xenophon (430 - 356 BC) - a famous ancient Greek writer, philosopher, historian, commander, politician. His work was greatly appreciated by ancient rhetoricians, besides, it had a huge impact on Latin prose. The main work of Xenophon is the Anabasis of Cyrus.
Xenophon was born in Athens into a wealthy family, possibly belonging to the equestrian class. His childhood and youth passed in the conditions of the Peloponnesian War, which did not prevent him from receiving not only military, but also a broad general education. From a young age he became a follower of Socrates.
After the Peloponnesian War was lost to Sparta in 404 BC, Xenophon left his homeland to join the expedition of Cyrus. After the death of Cyrus himself, Xenophon boldly and skillfully led the retreat of ten thousand Greeks through enemy territory. Xenophon completed the entire campaign - from the attack on Babylon and the battle of Kunaks, ending with the retreat through to Trebizond, and then to the West in Byzantium, Thrace and Pergamon. It was in Pergamum that Xenophon became one of the strategists of the Greek army. Since he became close to the Spartan king Agesilaus, and then also went with him to Greece, in Athens he was convicted of treason and his property was confiscated. Xenophon began to serve under the command of Agesilaus, took part in battles and campaigns against the enemies of Sparta - even against Athens. When the Spartans gave him a small estate near the Elis city of Skillunta, he settled there in solitude and began to engage in literary works.
Xenophon's biographer was Diogenes. All philosophical ideas of that time, as well as the teachings of Socrates - all this had little effect on the philosopher. But, this was quite clearly reflected in his religious views - for them, first of all, they are characterized by a belief in the intervention of the gods in the affairs of people, as well as a belief in all kinds of signs, through which the gods communicate their will to mortals. Is it true, ethical views Xenophon does not at all rise above common morality, but his political sympathies are completely on the side of the Spartan aristocratic state system. In addition to historical books, he also wrote a number of philosophical ones. As a student of Socrates, he sought in a popular form to give an idea of his personality and teachings.
Xenophon in his essay “On Revenues” suggested that the Athenian state create, ultimately, a gigantic, at that time, enterprise for the development of Lavrian silver mines and lead it in such a way as to ensure the well-being of all Athenian citizenship.
Plato
Plato (428 - 347 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher, student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle. Plato is one of the most the greatest philosophers Ancient Greece and, until now, remains the largest philosopher of Western Europe.
Plato is the first philosopher whose writings are not preserved in short passages quoted by others, but in full. Plato was born in Athens at the height of the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta, in a family of aristocratic origin, the clan of his father, Ariston, ascended, according to legend, to the last king of Attica - Codrus, and the ancestor of his mother, Periktion, was the Athenian reformer Solon. Perictione was the sister of Charmides and Critias, two famous figures from the Thirty Tyrants of the short-lived oligarchic regime that followed the collapse of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian War. According to ancient tradition, his birthday is considered to be 7 tharhelion (May 21), a holiday on which, according to mythological legend, the god Apollo was born on the island of Delos. Plato's real name is Aristocles (literally, "the best glory"). The nickname Plato (from the Greek word "plato" - breadth), meaning "wide, broad-shouldered", was given by the wrestler Ariston from Argos, his gymnastics teacher, for Plato's strong build. Some believe that he is so nicknamed for the breadth of his word, and Neanth for his broad forehead.
Around 408 BC, Plato met the "wisest of the Hellenes" - Socrates, he became one of his students of philosophy; before that he had studied poetry. Socrates is a constant participant in almost all of Plato's writings, written in the form of dialogues between historical and sometimes fictional characters. During the trial of Socrates, Plato was among his students who offered a bail for him. After the verdict, Plato fell ill and was not present at the last conversation in the dungeon.
After the death of Socrates in 399 BC, Plato, with some other students, moved to Megara. Plato developed the theory of the ideal state. Philosophers take over the management of the state, since only they are able to comprehend the idea (essence, problems) of the state. Warriors protect the state, and commoners work. Everyone takes his place in the state, each stratum of society has its own level of intelligence, human soul and virtue. For Plato, the state is the embodiment of law, order and measure.
In 389, Plato went to Sicily, with the help of Dionysius of Syracuse, to establish there an ideal state in which philosophers would receive the reins of government instead of a bowl of poison. Plato was invited as a teacher by the brother of the wife of the Syracusan tyrant Dionysius I, Dion. Dion dreamed that Plato could influence the tyrant with the help of philosophy and he would improve his rule. Dionysius, on the other hand, was a very suspicious person and eventually sent Plato home with an ambassador who was instructed to kill or sell the philosopher into slavery. Ambassador Pollidas sells Plato into slavery on the island of Aegina, where he is ransomed by one of his admirers.
In 386, Plato returns to Athens, where he begins to gather a circle of students around him, with whom he talks about philosophy in a suburban public garden (about a kilometer from Athens), and establishes the Academy.
The foundation of Plato's philosophy is the doctrine of ideas. He believed that everything that exists in the world has its own idea. Ideas are supersensible patterns of things. Ideas indicate the essential properties, composition and structure of a thing, its purpose and meaning. Ideas are primary, eternal. Real trees die, the drawing of a triangle can be erased, but the ideas of a tree and a triangle are eternal and immortal. In particular, ideas govern the universe. Ideas organize matter like a disorderly mass. Matter is "non-being" ("menon"), which takes the definition of ideas. The pyramid of ideas is crowned by Plato's idea of the good, the idea of beauty, the idea of truth.
Plato's theory of knowledge is based on his doctrine of the soul and memories. immortal soul, in contact with things, recalls what she dealt with in the world of ideas. These images, the true faces of things, are imprinted in our soul. After all, the soul is immortal and carries this immortal knowledge. Reliable knowledge is possible only about truly existing "species", that is, about ideas. About sensible things and phenomena, not knowledge is possible, but a probable "opinion". The main method of cognition is dialectics, that is, the ability to reduce everything particular and singular to a common feature. Plato often contrasts the soul and body as two heterogeneous entities. The body is decomposable and mortal, but the soul is eternal. Unlike the body, which can be destroyed, nothing can prevent the soul from existing forever. If we agree that vice and wickedness do harm to the soul, then even in this case it remains to recognize that vice does not lead the soul to death, but simply perverts it and makes it wicked. That which is incapable of perishing from any evil can be considered immortal: “since something does not perish from any of these evils - either from one’s own or from an outsider, then it is clear that this must certainly be something forever existing, and since it eternally exists, it is immortal.
Plato gave the famous image of the chariot of the soul. He painted the following picture: “Let us liken the soul
the combined strength of a winged pair team and a charioteer. Among the gods, both horses and charioteers are all noble and descended from noble ones, while the rest are of mixed origin. Firstly, it is our master who rules the team, and then, and his horses - one is beautiful, noble and born from the same horses, and the other horse is his opposite and his ancestors are different. It is inevitable that ruling us is a hard and tedious business.” The driver depicts here the mind, the good horse - the volitional part of the soul, and the bad horse - the passionate or emotional part of the soul.
In the dialogue "The State" Plato analyzes in more detail these three components of the human psyche. So, he likens the rational part of the soul - the shepherd of the flock, the strong-willed or furious part of the soul - to the dogs accompanying the shepherd, helping him manage the flock, and he calls the unreasonable, passionate part of the soul the flock, the virtue of which is to obey the shepherd and dogs. Thus, Plato distinguishes three principles of the soul:
1) Reasonable beginning, directed to cognition and fully conscious activity.
2) A furious beginning, striving for order and overcoming difficulties. The furious beginning is especially noticeable in a person, “when he believes that he is being treated unfairly, he boils up, gets irritated and becomes an ally of what seems fair to him, and for this he is ready to endure hunger, cold and all such torments, if only to win ; he will not give up his noble aspirations - either achieve his goal or die, unless he is humbled by the arguments of his own mind.
3) Passionate beginning, expressed in the countless desires of man. This principle, “because of which a person falls in love, experiences hunger and thirst, and is seized by other lusts, we will call the unreasonable and lustful principle, a close friend of every kind of satisfaction and pleasure.”
Further, in the course of reasoning, Plato remarks: “When the soul and body are connected, nature tells the body to obey and be a slave, and the soul to rule and be mistress. Taking this into consideration, tell me which of them, in your opinion, is closer to the divine and which to the mortal? Don't you think that the divine was created for power and leadership, and the mortal - for submission and slavery? - Yes, it seems, his interlocutor answers. So what is the soul like? “The soul is similar to the divine, and the body is similar to the mortal.”
Plato introduces ethical and religious aspects into his doctrine of the immortality of the soul. So, in particular, he mentions the possibility of posthumous punishments and rewards for the soul for its earthly accomplishments. In the dialogue “The State”, he cites a mythological legend about the posthumous fate of human souls, allegedly known from the words of a certain Pamphylian Er, who “once he was killed in the war; when ten days later they began to pick up the bodies of the already decomposed dead, they found him still whole, brought him home, and when on the twelfth day they started the burial, then, already lying on the fire, he suddenly came to life, and having come to life, he told what he had seen there.
The greatest merit of Plato to philosophy is the discovery of the objective existence of the world of ideas (mind), as the formative principle of the world. Without this discovery, no philosophy, no science, no human knowledge is possible. Plato's ideas express the idea of the laws of nature and society. The art of understanding the world is available to those who have mastered the highest ideas. Simultaneously with the "operation" with ideas, Plato laid bare the focus, the core of all philosophizing. To ask about the meaning of things or the world as a whole, one must go beyond the phenomena or the world, ask where they come from and why, do they make sense, are they real or not, what is hidden behind them?
Plato's philosophy is a unique attempt to combine the world of meanings (ideas) with the phenomena of the physical and social cosmos. The attitude towards the comprehension of ideas, a reasonable understanding of the world forever immortalized the name of Plato. The dialogue "State" gives the concept of the idea of the good as the highest object of knowledge. The word “good” itself means not just something that is ethically positive, but also ontological perfection, for example, the good quality of a particular thing, its usefulness and high quality. The good cannot be defined as pleasure, because one has to admit that there are bad pleasures. Good cannot be called something that only benefits us, because the same thing can harm another. Plato's good is "the good in itself".
Plato likens the idea of the good to the sun. In the visible world, the Sun is a necessary condition, both for the fact that objects become visible, and for the fact that a person acquires the ability to see objects. In exactly the same way, in the sphere of pure cognition, the idea of the good becomes a necessary condition, both for the cognizability of the ideas themselves, and for the ability of a person to cognize ideas.
According to ancient legends, Plato died on his birthday in 347 BC (the 13th year of the reign of the Macedonian king Philip). He was buried at the Academy. It is believed that he was buried under the name Aristocles.
Diogenes
Diogenes of Sinop (412 - 323 BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Antisthenes, the founder of the Cynic school. The most famous of the Cynic philosophers, Diogenes Sinope served as an example for the sage - a cynic in ancient time. Diogenes supports asceticism and emphasizes ethics, but brings to these philosophical positions a dynamism and a sense of humor unsurpassed in the history of philosophy. To this day, it is debated whether Diogenes left anything in writing behind him. Being a cynic, Diogenes lived and composed in two components of ethical practice, but Diogenes is very much like Socrates, and even Plato, in his feelings about the superiority of direct oral interaction over written reckoning.
The philosopher Diogenes was the son of Hykesias, a money changer. Diogenes was a citizen of Sinop who either fled or was exiled due to currency problems. Once in Delphi, he asked the oracle what he should do, to which he received the answer: "revaluation of values." Initially, he understood this saying as "re-coining", however, being exiled, he realized his vocation in philosophy. Diogenes moved to Athens. He built his dwelling near the Athenian agora in a large earthen vessel - a pithos, which was buried in the ground and in which grain, wine, oil were stored or people were buried. Once the boys broke his house. Later, the Athenians provided him with a new pithos.
One day the philosopher Aristippus, who made his fortune by praising a tyrant, saw Diogenes washing lentils and said, "If you were praising a tyrant, you wouldn't have to eat lentils!" To which Diogenes objected: "If you learned to eat lentils, then you would not have to glorify the tyrant!"
When the Athenians were preparing for war with Philip of Macedon and the city was in turmoil and excitement, Diogenes began to roll his clay barrel back and forth through the streets in which he lived. When asked why he was doing this, Diogenes replied: “Everyone is in trouble now, therefore it’s not good for me to mess around, and I roll pithos, because I have nothing else.”
Diogenes proclaimed the ideal of asceticism on the example of a mouse that was not afraid of anything, did not strive for anything and was content with little. The life of Diogenes in an earthen jar - pithos, the use of a cloak instead of a bed, illustrated this principle. Of the things he had only a bag and a staff. Sometimes he was seen walking barefoot in the snow. The meaning of asceticism was that true happiness lies in freedom and independence. Diogenes begged for alms from the statues, "to accustom himself to failure."
Diogenes repeatedly argued with Plato. Once trampling on a mat, he exclaimed: "I trample on the arrogance of Plato." When Plato said that a man is a “biped without feathers”, Diogenes plucked a rooster and called him a Platonic man. When Plato was asked who Diogenes was, he replied: "Socrates who has gone mad." Seeing the meager lifestyle of Diogenes, Plato noticed that even in slavery to the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he did not wash vegetables himself, to which he received the answer that if he had washed vegetables himself, he would not have ended up in slavery.
Diogenes participated in the battle of Chaeronea, but was captured by the Macedonians. In the slave market, when asked what he could do, he answered: "rule over people." A certain Xeniad bought it as a mentor to his children. Diogenes taught them horseback riding, javelin throwing, as well as history and Greek poetry.
Diogenes was a very outrageous person. He shocked his contemporaries, in particular, he ate in the square (at the time of Diogenes, a public meal was considered indecent) and openly engaged in masturbation, saying at the same time: “If only hunger could be appeased by rubbing the stomach!”. One day, Diogenes began to give a philosophical lecture in the town square. Nobody listened to him. Then Diogenes squealed like a bird, and a hundred onlookers gathered around. “Here, Athenians, is the price of your mind,” Diogenes told them. - "When I told you smart things, no one paid attention to me, and when I chirped like a foolish bird, you listen to me with your mouth open." Diogenes considered the Athenians unworthy to be called human. He scoffed at religious ceremonies and despised those who believed in dream interpreters.
When Alexander the Great came to Attica, he, of course, wanted to get acquainted with the famous "marginal", like many others. Alexander waited a long time for Diogenes himself to come to him to pay his respects, but the philosopher calmly spent time at his place. Then Alexander himself decided to visit him. And, finding Diogenes in Krania (in a gymnasium not far from Corinth), when he was basking in the sun, he approached him and said: “I am the great Tsar Alexander.” “And I,” replied Diogenes, “the dog Diogenes.” "And why are you called a dog?" “Whoever throws a piece - I wag, who doesn’t throw - I bark, who evil person- I bite. "Are you afraid of me?" Alexander asked. “And what are you,” Diogenes asked, “evil or good?” “Good,” he said. "And who is afraid of good?" Finally, Alexander said: "Ask me for whatever you want." “Step back, you are blocking the sun for me,” Diogenes said and continued to warm himself. On the way back, Alexander remarked: "If I were not Alexander, I would like to become Diogenes."
Ironically, Diogenes died on the same day as Alexander the Great. A marble monument in the form of a dog was erected on his grave, with the epitaph:
Let copper grow old under the power of time - nevertheless,
Your glory will survive the ages, Diogenes.
You taught us how to live with what you have
You have shown us a path that is easier than ever.
Aristotle
Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher. Plato's student. From 343 BC - educator of Alexander the Great. Naturalist of the classical period. The most influential of the philosophers of antiquity; founder of formal logic. Aristotle was the first thinker who created a comprehensive system of philosophy, covering all areas of human development: sociology, philosophy, politics, logic, physics. His views on ontology had a serious influence on the subsequent development of human thought. Karl Marx called Aristotle the greatest thinker of antiquity.
Aristotle was born in Stageira (therefore, he received the nickname Stagirite), a Greek colony in Halkidiki, not far from Mount Athos. Aristotle's father, Nicomachus, was from the island of Andros. Mother Festida came from Chalkis of Euboea. Aristotle was a pure Greek by father and mother. Nicomachus, the father of Aristotle, was a hereditary Asclepiad and traced his lineage to the Homeric hero Machaon, the son of Asclepius. The philosopher's father was a court physician and friend of Amyntas III, father of Philip II and grandfather of Alexander the Great. He was Aristotle's first tutor, as the Asclepiads had a tradition of teaching their children from a young age. Apparently, this was the beginning of his interest in biology.
However, Aristotle's parents died when he was not yet of age. At seventeen
age Aristotle came to Athens. Aristotle stayed at the Academy of Plato for 20 years, until the death of his teacher. In their relationship, both positive and negative points stand out. The fact is that Aristotle suffered from speech defects, was "short-legged, with small eyes, wore elegant clothes and a trimmed beard." Plato did not approve of either Aristotle's lifestyle or his manner of dressing. “And there was some kind of mockery on his face, inappropriate talkativeness, also, testified to his character.”
After the death of Plato, Aristotle, along with Xenocrates, Erast, and Korisk, travels to Assos, a coastal city in Asia Minor opposite the island of Lesbos. During his stay in Assos, Aristotle became close to Hermias. Proximity contributed to the fact that Aristotle married his adopted daughter and niece Pythiades, who bore him a girl who received the name of her mother. Pythiades was not the only woman of Aristotle. After her death, he illegally married the maid Herpellid, from whom he had a son, named, according to ancient Greek tradition, in honor of the father of Nicomachus.
After a three-year stay in Assos, Aristotle went to the island of Lesbos and stopped in the city of Mytelene, where he taught until he received an invitation from Philip II to become the tutor of the royal son Alexander. Aristotle began teaching Alexander when he was 14 years old. Aristotle taught Alexander a variety of sciences, including medicine. The philosopher instilled in the prince a love for Homeric poetry, so that, in the future, the list of the Iliad, which Aristotle compiled for Alexander, the king would keep under his pillow along with the dagger. In 335/334, Aristotle suspended the upbringing of Alexander, due to the fact that the latter's father was killed and the young prince had to take power into his own hands.
The whole philosophy of Aristotle is characterized by the idea of realizing the form, the paradigm of reason, both in the things themselves and in systematic thinking. He is the founder of formal logic. Science begins with Aristotle, as a way of obtaining knowledge about the world, with the help of logical and conceptual means. Aristotle divided all philosophy into three parts: theoretical, the purpose of which is knowledge for the sake of knowledge, a categorical analysis of things, practical or “philosophy about the human”, and poetic or creative, the purpose of which is to give knowledge for creativity. Aristotle wrote the natural science treatises "On Physics", "On the Sky", "On the Parts of Animals", in particular, the treatise "On the Soul". Considering the soul as the beginning of life, he gives a typology of the levels of the soul; distinguishes plant, animal and rational soul.
One of the central teachings of Aristotle's "first philosophy" is the doctrine of four causes, or
first principles. In "Metaphysics" and other works, Aristotle develops the doctrine of the causes and principles of all things. These reasons are:
1. Matter - "that from which." The variety of things that exist objectively; matter is eternal, uncreated and indestructible; it cannot arise from nothing, increase or decrease in its quantity; it is inert and passive.
2. Form - "that which." Essence, stimulus, purpose, and also, the reason for the formation of diverse things from monotonous matter.
3. The operating, or producing cause - "that from where." It characterizes the moment of time from which the existence of a thing begins. The beginning of all beginnings is God.
4. Purpose, or ultimate cause - "what for". Every thing has its own particular purpose. The highest goal is the Good.
From Aristotle, the basic concepts of space and time begin to take shape:
Substantial - considers space and time as independent entities, the beginning of the world.
Relational. According to this concept, space and time are not independent entities, but systems of relations formed by interacting material objects.
The categories of space and time act as a "method" and a number of motion, that is, as a sequence of real and mental events and states, and therefore are organically linked with the principle of development. The concrete embodiment of Beauty, as the principle of the world order, Aristotle saw in the Idea or the Mind.
He denied the intervention of the gods in the affairs of the world and proceeded from the recognition of the eternity of matter, which has an internal source of motion. Like Democritus, he argued that the world consists of atoms and emptiness. According to Aristotle, the world movement is an integral process: all its moments are mutually conditioned, which implies the presence of a single engine. God is the first cause of movement, the beginning of all beginnings, since there cannot be an infinite series of causes or without beginning. The absolute beginning of any movement is a deity, as a global supersensible substance. Aristotle substantiated the existence of a deity by considering the principle of the beautification of the Cosmos.
Aristotle believed that the soul, which has integrity, is nothing more than its organizing principle, inseparable from the body, the source and method of regulating the body, its objectively observable behavior. The soul is the entelechy of the body. The soul is inseparable from the body, but is itself immaterial, incorporeal. That by which we live, feel and think is the soul. “The soul is the cause, as that from where the movement comes from, as the goal and as the essence of animate bodies.” Thus, the soul is a certain meaning and form, and not matter, not a substratum. Aristotle gave an analysis of the various parts of the soul: memory, emotions, the transition from sensations to general perception, and from it to a generalized idea; from opinion through the concept to knowledge, and from directly felt desire to rational will.
The basis of experience is sensation, memory and habit. Any knowledge begins with sensations: it is that which is able to take the form of sensually perceived objects without their matter; reason sees the general in the particular. Aristotle considered sensations to be reliable, reliable evidence of things, but adding a reservation that, in themselves, sensations determine only the first and lowest level of knowledge, and a person rises to the highest level thanks to the generalization of social practice in thinking.
There are two principles in man: biological and social. Already from the moment of his birth, a person is not left alone with himself; he joins in all the accomplishments of the past and present, in the thoughts and feelings of all mankind. Human life outside of society is impossible.
Aristotle taught that the Earth, which is the center of the universe, is spherical. Aristotle saw proof of the sphericity of the Earth in the nature of lunar eclipses, in which the shadow cast by the Earth on the Moon has a rounded shape at the edges, which can only be if the Earth is spherical. Referring to the statements of a number of ancient mathematicians, Aristotle considered the circumference of the Earth to be 400,000 stadia (about 71,200 km). Aristotle, in addition, was the first to prove the sphericity of the Moon, based on the study of its phases. The universe consists of a series of concentric spheres moving at different speeds and set in motion by the outermost sphere of the fixed stars. The vault of heaven and all heavenly bodies are spherical. However, Aristotle argued this idea incorrectly, based on a teleological idealistic concept. Aristotle deduced the sphericity of heavenly bodies from the false view that the so-called "sphere" is the most perfect form.
The “sublunar world”, that is, the region between the orbit of the Moon and the center of the Earth, is a region of chaotic uneven movements, and all bodies in this region consist of four lower elements: earth, water, air and fire. Earth, as the heaviest element, occupies a central place. Above it are successively shells of water, air and fire. The "supralunar world", that is, the region between the orbit of the Moon and the extreme sphere of the fixed stars, is the region of ever-uniform movements, and the stars themselves consist of the fifth, most perfect element - ether. Ether (the fifth element) is part of the stars and the sky. It is divine, incorruptible, and completely unlike the other four elements. The stars, according to Aristotle, are motionless fixed in the sky and circulate with it, and the "wandering luminaries" (planets) move in seven concentric circles. The cause of the heavenly movement is God.
The philosopher created the doctrine of the state and the civil community, which arose naturally from such
primary social associations, like the family, the village. The philosopher analyzed the "correct" forms of political government (monarchy, aristocracy and politics) and the "wrong" ones (tyranny, oligarchy, democracy). Aristotle criticized Plato's doctrine of the perfect. He believed that the community of property, wives and children proposed by Plato would lead to the destruction of the state. Aristotle was a staunch defender of the rights of the individual, private property and the monogamous family, as well as a supporter of slavery. However, Aristotle did not recognize the conversion of prisoners of war into slavery as justified; in his opinion, slaves should be those who, having physical strength, do not have reason.
Aristotle considered the formation of a family as the first result of social life - husband and wife, parents and children ... The need for mutual exchange led to communication between families and villages. This is how the state was born. The state is created not in order to live in general, but to live, mostly, happily. The state arises only when communication is created for the sake of a good life between families and clans, for the sake of a perfect and sufficient life for itself. The nature of the state stands "ahead" of the family and the individual. He singled out three main layers of citizens: the very wealthy, the middle, and the extremely poor. According to Aristotle, the poor and the rich “turn out to be elements in the state that are diametrically opposed to each other, that, depending on the preponderance of one or another of the elements, the corresponding form of the state system is also established.” The best state is that society which is achieved by means of the middle element (that is, the "middle" element between slave owners and slaves), and those states have the best structure where the middle element is represented in greater numbers. When in a state many people are deprived of political rights, when there are many poor people in it, then in such a state there will inevitably be hostile elements.
Politics is a science, the knowledge of how best to organize the life of people together in
state. Politics is the art and skill of public administration. The goal of politics is a just (common) good. Achieving this goal is not easy. A politician must take into account that people have not only virtues, but also vices. Therefore, the task of politics is not the education of morally perfect people, but the education of virtues in citizens. The virtue of a citizen consists in the ability to fulfill his civic duty and in the ability to obey the authorities and laws.
The works of Aristotle are also interesting in biology. Aristotle was of the opinion that the more perfect the creation, the more perfect its form, but, at the same time, the form does not determine the content. He distinguished three types of soul:
The vegetable soul responsible for reproduction and growth;
The sentient soul, responsible for mobility and feeling;
A rational soul capable of thinking and reasoning.
He attributed the presence of the first soul to plants, the first and second to animals, and all three to man. Aristotle, following the Egyptians, believed that the place of the rational soul is in the heart, and not in the brain. Interestingly, Aristotle was one of the first to separate feeling and thought.
Aristotle recognized the existence of two kingdoms in the surrounding world: inanimate and living nature. Plants he attributed to animated, living nature. According to Aristotle, plants have a lower stage of the development of the soul, in comparison with animals and humans. Aristotle noted in the nature of plants and animals some common properties. He wrote, for example, that in relation to some inhabitants of the sea it is difficult to decide whether they are plants or animals.
Actually, Aristotle ends the classical period in the development of Greek philosophy. Aristotle died of a stomach ailment. His body was transferred to Stageira, where grateful fellow citizens erected a crypt for the philosopher. In honor of Aristotle, festivities were established, bearing the names "Aristotle", and the month in which they were held was called "Aristotle".
Pyrrho
Pyrrho of Elis (360-275 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher. Founder of the ancient skeptical school. He was of the opinion that nothing, in reality, is neither beautiful nor ugly, neither just nor unjust, since, in itself, everything is the same, and therefore, it is no more one than the other. Everything that is not the same, different is (arbitrary) human institutions and customs. Things are inaccessible to our knowledge; this is the basis of the method of refraining from judgment. As a practical-moral ideal method, “equanimity”, “serenity” (ataraxia) is derived from here.
The doctrine of Pyrrho is called Pyrrhonism. This name is synonymous with skepticism. The most important source to study his theory is the work of Sextus Empiricus "Pyrrhonic positions". Pyrrho became famous for the fact that, as a thinker, he proclaimed the principle of "refraining from judgment." It formed the basis of the main method of philosophy and philosophizing. The subject matter of philosophy in skepticism involves bringing ethical issues to the fore. People who understand philosophy began to highlight issues that concerned life in a changed and, as yet, unstable world. Questions, in accordance with which, they tried to understand how the world works, had a secondary nature.
Philosophy, according to the philosopher, is a science that helps in the fight against dangers, frees from worries, and helps in overcoming difficulties. Therefore, Pyrrho is a sage, not a theoretician. He could give an answer about how to cope with any life problems. Pyrrho thought that a philosopher is a person who strove for happiness as such. It, in his opinion, consisted in the absence of suffering and equanimity to everything that happens in life. Pyrrho himself believed that it was impossible to say something definite about things. Each subject from life can be described in different ways. It is impossible to judge him categorically.
Sense impressions are something to be taken without skepticism. If a person finds something sweet or bitter, then so be it. This is where equanimity arises, which will entail obtaining the highest happiness.
Theophrastus
Theophrastus, or Theophrastus, (370 - 287 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher, naturalist, music theorist. Along with Aristotle, he is the founder of botany and plant geography. Thanks to the historical part of his doctrine of nature, he acts as the founder of the history of philosophy (especially psychology and the theory of knowledge).
Born in the family of fuller Melantha in Lesvos. At birth, he had the name Tirtam. Theophrastus ("Godful") he was later nicknamed. He was a student of Plato, spent a long time in Athens, after the death of his teacher went to school with Aristotle and soon became his favorite student. Traditions say that he received his name from Aristotle. Theophrastus was hosted by the Macedonian king Cassander, the founder of the Museion of Alexandria, Demetrius of Phalera, and his successor as head of the Lyceum, Straton. He lived for 85 years and was buried with honors in Athens.
Theophrastus left behind more than two hundred scientific works on a variety of topics. The influence of the works of Theophrastus on the subsequent development of botany, for many centuries, was enormous, since the scientists of the Ancient World did not rise above him, neither in understanding the nature of plants, nor in describing their forms. In accordance with his contemporary level of knowledge, certain provisions of Theophrastus were naive and not scientific. Scientists of that time did not yet have a high research technique, there were no scientific experiments. But, with all this, the level of knowledge achieved by the "father of botany" was very significant. His works "History of Plants" and "Causes of Plants" set out the basic classification of plants and their physiology, and also described more than five hundred plant species. He outlined with insight the main problems of scientific plant physiology. How are plants different from animals? What organs do plants have? What is the activity of the root, stem, leaves, fruits? Why do plants get sick? What effect do heat and cold, humidity and dryness, soil and climate have on the plant world? Can a plant arise by itself (spawn spontaneously)? Can one type of plant change into another?Theophrastus was one of the first to suggest that nature develops and acts on the basis of its own interests, and not in order to be useful to man. Also, the scientist described the functions and physiological characteristics of the roots, leaves, stems and fruits of plants.
The most famous was the work of Theophastus "On the Properties of Human Morals", in which he
masterfully described the character traits of a person, providing them with vivid examples of the behavior of certain people in different situations. This is a collection of 30 essays on human types, depicting a flatterer, a talker, a braggart, a proud man, a grouch, an incredulous one, and so on, moreover, each is outlined by vivid situations in which this type manifests itself. So, when the collection of donations begins, the miser, without saying a word, leaves the meeting. Being the captain of the ship, he goes to bed on the helmsman's mattress, and on the feast of the Muses (when it was customary to send a reward to the teacher), he leaves the children at home. Often they talk about the mutual influence of the characters of Theophrastus and the characters of the new Greek comedy. Undoubtedly his influence on all modern literature.
The thinker paid much attention to the study of the nature and purpose of music, from his two-volume work “On Music” only a fragment has come down to us, from which we can conclude that Theophrastus denied the understanding of music accepted at that time as a sounding incarnation of numbers (Pythagorean-Platonic doctrine). In his work, the following is said on this subject: “The nature of music is not in numbers and not in interval movement, but in the soul, which gets rid of evil through experience. Without this movement of the soul, there would be no essence of music.”
Epicurus
Epicurus (341 - 270 BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher, founder of epicureanism in Athens ("Garden of Epicurus"). Epicurus founded one of the fundamental philosophies of ancient Greece, helping to lay the intellectual foundations for modern science and for secular individualism. Many aspects of his thought are still very relevant, some twenty-three centuries later.
The Athenian Epicurus, the son of Neocles and Herestrata, grew up on the island of Samos and from the age of 14 (according to other sources, from 12) began to be interested in philosophy. At the age of 18 he came to Athens. At the age of 32, he founded his philosophical school, which was originally located in Mytilene (on the island of Lesbos) and Lampsak (on the Asian coast of the Dardanelles), and from 306 BC - in Athens. In this city, Epicurus and his students settled in the garden he bought (hence the name of the Epicureans: "philosophers of the Garden"). In The Garden, Epicurus and his friends pondered and reflected on their ideals of human life, speaking of philosophical problems, but deliberately separating them directly from active participation in social affairs. Above the entrance there hung a saying: “Guest, you will be fine here. Here pleasure is the highest good.
Epicurus sincerely accepted the atomism of Leucippus and Democritus, arguing that all objects, including events and human lives, are, in fact, nothing more than a physical interaction in the medium of indestructible particles. As they fall towards the center of the earth, the atoms deviate from their paths, which collide with each other and form a temporary being. There is no need for a mandatory order of things; everything happens by chance.
The universe is the result of the collision and separation of atoms, apart from which there is nothing but empty space. Epicurus considered the universe to be infinite. In the space between these worlds, immortal and happy, the gods live, not caring about the world and people. In the same way, living beings arise and disappear, as well as the soul, which consists of the thinnest, lightest, most round and mobile atoms.
Explanation natural phenomena Epicurus is extremely close to the point of view of modern physicists. He dwells on the origin of such phenomena as thunder, lightning, wind, snow, rainbows, earthquakes and comets. Epicurus is considered the discoverer of empirical natural science. Epicurus considered the mind to be completely dependent on sensations. Because the sense cognition, according to Epicurus, is infallible, insofar as errors in knowledge or delusions come from erroneous judgments about what is given in sensations. A "figurative throw of thought" is defined as intuition or intellectual intuition. According to Epicurus, "only that which is accessible to observation or caught by a throw of thought is true", and "the main sign of a perfect and complete knowledge is the ability to quickly use thought throws.
Unlike the Stoics, Epicurus was not interested in participating in day-to-day politics, believing that this leads to trouble. Epicurus preached the principle of “live inconspicuously”, believed that you need to go through life without attracting attention to yourself; not to strive for fame, power or wealth, but to enjoy the small joys of life - delicious food, the company of friends, and so on.
Laws and punishments are necessary to keep in check the fools who might cause the treaty to suffer.
However, the benefit of the contract is obvious to the sage, and in view of the fact that his desires are small, he has no need to violate the laws. Laws useful for human communication and happiness are just, useless laws are unjust. Epicurus believed that in different geographical areas people, under the influence of the same things, made different sounds (due to the different influence of the environment on human lungs). Thus, the first words spoken by people were different, and therefore the languages became different.
The philosophy of Epicurus combines a physics based on atomistic materialism with a rational hedonistic ethic that emphasizes slowing down desires and cultivating friendship. His outlook is very optimistic, emphasizing that philosophy can free a person from fears of death and the supernatural, and can teach us how to find happiness in almost any situation. His practical insight into human psychology, as well as his scientifically favorable outlook, is of great contemporary importance to Epicureanism, as well as playing a respectable role in the intellectual development of Western Civilization.
The philosopher died "of a kidney stone" in 271 or 270 BC.
Plutarch
Plutarch (46 - 127 AD) - ancient Greek writer and philosopher, public figure. He is best known as the author of Comparative Biographies, in which he recreated the images of prominent political figures of Greece and Rome.
Plutarch came from a wealthy family who lived in the small town of Chaeronea in Boeotia. In his youth in Athens, Plutarch studied philosophy (mainly with the Platonist Ammonius), mathematics, and rhetoric. Even in his youth, Plutarch, together with his brother Lamprey and teacher Ammonius, visited Delphi, where the cult of Apollo, which had fallen into decay, was still preserved. This journey had a serious impact on the life and literary work of Plutarch. Teaching his own sons, Plutarch gathered young people in his house and created a kind of private academy, in which he played the role of mentor and lecturer.
Plutarch repeatedly visited Rome and other places in Italy, had students with whom he taught in Greek (he began to study Latin only “in his declining years”). In Rome, Plutarch met with the neo-Pythagoreans, and also struck up friendships with many prominent people. Having become, purely formally, a member of the Mestrian family (in accordance with Roman legal practice), Plutarch received Roman citizenship and a new name - Mestrius Plutarch. Thanks to Senekion, he became the most influential person in his province: Emperor Trajan forbade the governor of Achaia to hold any events without prior approval from Plutarch. This position allowed Plutarch to freely engage in social and educational activities in his homeland in Chaeronea, where he held not only the honorary position of archontaeponym, but also more modest magistracies.
Contrary to the personal modesty of the philosopher, the fame of him spread throughout Greece, when Plutarch
turned fifty years old, he was elected priest of the temple of Apollo at Delphi. In 1877, during excavations in this area, archaeologists discovered a pedestal erected in his honor, with a poetic laudatory dedication.
Plutarch left behind about 210 writings. A significant part of them has come down to our time. The philosopher's worldview is quite simple: he believed in the existence higher mind- a wise teacher who tirelessly reminds his negligent students of eternal universal human values. Many of his works are dedicated to these values, they cover a wide range of topics, from practical psychology to cosmogony. All these works are traditionally combined into one general treatise called Moralia. Moralia traditionally includes about 80 compositions. Plutarch was a deeply pious man and recognized the importance of traditional pagan religion for the preservation of morality.
The second conditional part of the creative heritage of Plutarch is called "Parallel biographies", out of more than seventy biographies compiled by him, about fifty have survived to this day. In addition to the biographies of specific people, the works also contain stories about everyday life and social events of that time; in general, this is a monumental historical work about the Greco-Roman past. Plutarch was also interested in the psychology of animals ("On the Intelligence of Animals").
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Philosophy tests for students studying in the humanities and technical specialties on the topic "History of Philosophy". In the test, you must choose the correct answer. Correct answers are indicated by a "+" sign
The birthplace of the religious and philosophical system of Zoroastrianism is ...
-: Ancient China
+: Middle East
-: Ancient India
At the heart of ancient cosmocentrism is the idea ...
+: ordered integer
-: substances
- divine creation
- Michel Montaigne
+: Niccolo Machiavelli
- Erasmus of Rotterdam
George Berkeley refutes the existence of...
+: matter
- sensations
-: consciousness
The founder of critical or "transcendental" idealism in German classical philosophy is...
-: L. Feuerbach
-: F. Schelling
-: G. Hegel
Albert Camus is the representative
-: structuralism
+: existentialism
- religious mysticism
-: Marxism
A characteristic feature of Russian idealist philosophy is ...
- systemic
+: anthropocentrism
-: detailed development of epistemology
-: rigor of logical constructions
-: mimamsa
+: Jainism
The ancient philosopher who created the concept of ethical intellectualism, identified virtue with knowledge, was ...
-: Anaxagoras
-: Parmenides
-: Aristotle
The main difference between the position of realism and nominalism was that ...
-: nominalists were consistent agnostics, but realists were not
-nominalists were monotheists, realists were polytheists
+: realists recognized independent existence common properties, but nominalists do not
- Realists were atheists and nominalists were creationists
D. Hume considered the existence of ...
+: cause-and-effect relationships
- psychic associations
-: experience data
- common good
- sensual inclination
-: government
The representatives of postmodern philosophy include ...
-: E. Fromm
-: V. Dilthey
+: J. Deleuze
-: J. Maritain
The founder of Taoism is...
+: Laozi
-: Mencius
- Dao-an
-: Confucius
-: irrationalism
- panpsychism
+: rationalism
- pantheism
Michel Montaigne in his essay "Experiments" states the principle ...
-: dogmatism
- agnosticism
The founder of monadology is ...
- Thomas Hobbes
-: Rene Descartes
-: Baruch Spinoza
+: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
+: Immanuel Kant
- Edward Wilson
-: Rene Descartes
- Jean-Paul Sartre
The philosophical direction, which considers that the essence of a person in its reality is a set of social relations, is called ...
+: Marxism
- Neo-Kantianism
- neopositivism
- Neo-Thomism
One of the main features of Russian philosophy is ...
-: rationalism
-: pragmatism
- positivism
+: moral and religious character
In the views on nature in the Renaissance, it is affirmed ...
-: cosmology
- theocentrism
-: realism
+: pantheism
The meaning of "deism" is...
+: the notion that the spirit creates matter and precedes it
-: recognition of the primacy of matter and the derivativeness of spirit from it
- identification of God and nature
-: recognition of two equal principles: spirit and matter
The concept of "existence" is the central concept of the philosophical direction ...
- Freudianism
-: hermeneutics
-: structuralism
+: existentialism
The idea, according to which the idea was affirmed that Moscow inherited from Rome and Constantinople the traditions of the state, cemented not so much by force as by culture and religion, was called ...
-: unity theory
+: “Moscow is the third Rome”
-: noosphere theories
The principle of non-action is fundamental in philosophy...
- legalism
-: Confucianism
+: Taoism
The founder of the doctrine of the atomic structure of matter is ...
-: Aristotle
-: Protagoras
+: Democritus
The "angelic doctor" is a name given to a medieval thinker...
-: St. Augustine
-: Aristotle
+: Thomas Aquinas
The philosophical system of K. Marx is based on the principles ...
-: dialectical idealism
- agnosticism
The description of phenomena as the main goal of philosophical knowledge recognizes ...
-: structuralism
-: analytical philosophy
- Neo-Marxism
+: phenomenology
A Russian philosopher of the 19th century, declared insane for his views, was ...
-: A. Herzen
+: P. Chaadaev
-: M. Bakunin
-: N. Berdyaev
The ancient Indian materialist philosophers include ...
-: Democritus
-: Shankara
+: Brihaspati
-: Badarayana
A common feature of the teachings of the sophists is ...
- naturalism
-: dogmatism
+: relativism
-: dialectic
The creator of the doctrine of the harmony of faith and reason was ...
-: Ibn Rushd
+: Thomas Aquinas
-: St. Augustine
- William of Ockham
F. Bacon considered the main method of scientific knowledge ...
-: historicism
- deduction
-: dialectics
+: induction
The concept of "paradigm" in the philosophy of science introduced ...
-: K. Popper
-: I. Lakatos
-: R. Carnap
The representative of Westernism in Russian philosophy is ...
-: K, E, Tsiolkovsky
-: A. S. Khomyakov
+: A. I. Herzen
-: G. V. Plekhanov
It does not belong to the six main schools of ancient China ...
-: school of law
-: name school
+: Faxianzong
The universal beginning of the philosophical system of I. Fichte is the Kantian principle ...
-: identities of subject and object
-: dualism of nature and freedom
+: autonomy of will
- thinking self
R. Descartes considers absolutely certain...
-: logical law
+: doubt
- evidence of feelings
-: Pythagoras
The ideological principle of medieval philosophy is ...
+: theocentrism
- anthropocentrism
-: cosmocentrism
- heliocentrism
From the point of view of L. Feuerbach, the source of religion is ...
+: human limitation
- moral sense
- power of man
- philosophizing, searching for the meaning of life
The representatives of the anti-scientist position in modern Western European philosophy include ...
-: P. Natorp
-: K. Popper
-: M. V. Lomonosov
-: Metropolitan Hilarion
-: N. A. Berdyaev
The ancient Chinese school that preached "respect for the law" is called ...
-: ming-chia
- Taoism
The largest representative of patristics is ...
+: Augustine Aurelius
-: Aristotle
- Pierre Abelard
- Thomas Aquinas
The central theme of the philosophy of A. Camus is the question of ...
-: the role of technology in modern culture
- anthropologization of God
- knowledge of the world
+: sense of human existence
G.V. Plekhanov is the representative of…
- cosmism
-: anarchism
-: irrationalism
+: Marxism
The philosophical school belongs to ancient Indian philosophy ...
+: Vedanta
- Taoism
- Pythagoreanism
-: atomism
The manifestation of the divine principle in man from the position of the philosophy of the Renaissance is ...
+: creativity
- humility
- sensuality
-: J. La Mettrie
-: P. Holbach
+: John Locke
-: I. Herder
The central problem of German classical philosophy is...
- problem of origin
The main text of Confucianism is...
-: Upanishads
+: "Tetrabook"
-: pluralism
- universalism
- monism
+: dualism
The sphere of the identity of the subject and object, according to F. Schelling, is ...
+: art
-: Vl. Solovyov
-: N. Danilevsky
-: N. Berdyaev
-: Heraclitus
+: Parmenides
One of the schools of ancient Chinese philosophy is...
- Jainism
+: Taoism
-: sankhya
-: lokayata
Plato's philosophy is...
- skepticism
-: materialism
+: objective idealism
- subjective idealism
The concept of "thing in itself" by I. Kant means ...
- absolute self
+: unknowable entity
-: phenomenon
-: transcendental subject
The most prominent representatives of Russian conservatism include ...
+: N. Danilevsky
-: Vl. Solovyov
-: P. Lavrov
-: V. Lenin
The basic laws of ___ were formulated by G. Hegel.
+: dialectics
-: natural law theories
- anthropology
-: Pythagoras
The philosophical system of K. Marx is based on the principles ...
- agnosticism
+: dialectical materialism
- mechanistic materialism
-: dialectical idealism
Descartes' doctrine of substance has the character of...
-: pluralism
- universalism
+: dualism
- monism
The manifestation of the divine principle in man from the position of the philosophy of the Renaissance is ...
- humility
+: creativity
- sensuality
The representatives of postmodern philosophy include ...
-: E. Fromm
-: J. Maritain
-: V. Dilthey
+: J. Deleuze
The ideological principle of medieval philosophy is ...
- anthropocentrism
-: cosmocentrism
+: theocentrism
- heliocentrism
The unorthodox schools of ancient India include ...
+: Jainism
-: mimamsa
The founder of German classical philosophy is ...
- Jean-Paul Sartre
+: Immanuel Kant
- Edward Wilson
-: ON THE. Berdyaev
-: Metropolitan Hilarion
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau
+: Thomas Hobbes
- Denis Diderot
A Russian philosopher of the 19th century, declared insane for his views, was ...
-: A. Herzen
-: N. Berdyaev
+: P. Chaadaev
-: M. Bakunin
The ancient Chinese sage who defended the rule of the "golden mean" was ...
+: Confucius
-: Lao Tzu
-: Mencius
The doctrine of the predestination of history and the fate of people by divine will is called ...
-: creationism
- revolutionism
+: providentialism
- soteriologism
One of the schools of ancient Chinese philosophy is...
-: lokayata
- Jainism
+: Taoism
- sankhya
The description of phenomena as the main goal of philosophical knowledge recognizes ...
- Neo-Marxism
-: analytical philosophy
+: phenomenology
-: structuralism
G.V. Plekhanov is the representative ...
-: irrationalism
- cosmism
+: Marxism
-: anarchism
A characteristic feature of ancient Greek philosophy, which distinguishes it from the ancient Eastern one, is ...
- panpsychism
+: rationalism
- pantheism
-: irrationalism
The philosopher who first formulated the problem of being and non-being in philosophy is ...
+: Parmenides
-: Heraclitus
In the views on nature in the Renaissance, it is affirmed ...
- theocentrism
-: cosmology
+: pantheism
-: realism
The idea, according to which the idea was affirmed that Moscow inherited from Rome and Constantinople the traditions of the state, cemented not so much by force as by culture and religion, was called ...
-: unity theories
-: theories of "cultural-historical types"
-: noosphere theories
+: “Moscow is the third Rome”
The purpose of the doctrine of method in the philosophy of modern times is ...
-: analysis of the language of science
-: separation of philosophy from science
-: creating a science of root causes
+: building a unified system of science
The central problem of German classical philosophy is...
- the question of the relationship between man and God
+: the problem of the identity of the subject and object
- problem of origin
-: the structure of the human psyche
The concept of "paradigm" in the philosophy of science introduced ...
-: I. Lakatos
-: R. Carnap
-: K. Popper
Central to the philosophy of N. Berdyaev is the concept of ...
- "philosophy of rational egoism"
- "philosophy of the word"
+: "philosophy of freedom"
- philosophy of unity
The main text of Confucianism is...
+: "Tetrabook"
-: Upanishads
Plato's philosophy is...
-: materialism
- skepticism
- subjective idealism
+: objective idealism
The ancestor of the ideology of humanism is ...
- Roger Bacon
- Niccolo Machiavelli
+: Francesco Petrarch
- Giordano Bruno
The sphere of the identity of the subject and object, according to F. Schelling, is ...
+: art
The theory of natural law was developed by...
-: I. Herder
+: John Locke
-: J. La Mettrie
-: P. Holbach
The ancient Indian materialist philosophers include ...
-: Badarayana
-: Shankara
+: Brihaspati
-: Democritus
The founder of the doctrine of the atomic structure of matter is ...
-: Aristotle
-: Thomas More
- Erasmus of Rotterdam
+: Niccolo Machiavelli
The representative of empiricism in the philosophy of modern times was ...
- Benedict Spinoza
+: Francis Bacon
- Gottfried Leibniz
-: Rene Descartes
The representatives of the anti-scientist position in modern Western European philosophy include ...
+: G. Rickert
-: K. Popper
- Friedrich Schelling
- Arthur Schopenhauer
1. As an independent spiritual and cultural education, philosophy arose:
a) With the advent of the first inhabitants
b) C Ancient Rome
c) in ancient Greece
d) New Time
e) during the Renaissance Answer: in
2. An ancient Greek philosopher who claims that the basis of all things is the boundless "apeiron"
a) Anaximander
b) Anaximenes
c) Heraximenes
d) Pythagoras
e) Democritus Answer: a
3. An ancient thinker who recognized the primacy of the world of ideas in relation to the real existence of things:
a) Heraclitus
b) Aristotle
c) Socrates
e) Plato Answer: d
4. The saying: “Plato is my friend, but the truth is dearer” belongs to:
a) Aristotle
b) Pythagoras
c) Heraclitus
d) Socrates
e) Protagoras Answer: a
5. Creator of the atomistic picture of the world:
a) Plotinus
b) Epicurus
c) Democritus
d) Parmenides
e) Anaxagoras Answer: c
6. Pythagoras claimed that:
a) all concepts are contained in the person himself
b) everything is water
c) the world is a harmony of numbers
d) everything is made of atoms
e) everything is fire Answer: c
7. Filosov, who claimed water as the first principle:
a) Anaximenes
c) Newton
d) Aristotle
e) Augustine Answer: b
8. The mindset prevailing in the Renaissance:
a) humanism
b) Realism
c) Idealism
d) Meterialism
e) Romanticism Answer: a
9. Type of worldview, according to which a person is the center of the worldview:
a) Geocentrism
b) Anthropologism
c) Pantheism
d) Anthropocentrism
e) Anticlericalism Answer: d
10. Starting point, the beginning of all knowledge, philosophical thinking according to Descartes:
a) sensory perception
b) A priori forms of reason
c) Agnosticism
d) "thing in itself"
e) Doubt Answer: d
11. T. Hobbes understands the “natural state of people” as:
a) love of neighbor
b) War of all against all
c) The balance of love and hate
d) Coming to terms with reality
e) Political relativism Answer: b
12. Objective idealism is characteristic of philosophy:
a) Hegel and Plato
b) Locke and Hume
c) Aristotle and Hegel
d) Descartes and Socrates
e) Berkeley and Spinoza Answer: a
13. What are "idols of knowledge"?
a) Reasoning mechanism
c) Deities worshiped by man
d) Obstacles on the path to truth
e) Turns of speech Answer: d
14. Basic concepts of the ethics of Epicurus:
a) Achievement of happiness and peace of mind
b) Achieving peace of mind and humility
c) Hedonism
d) Courage, fortitude
e) Humanism Answer: a
15. What is the concept of nominalism in the philosophy of the Middle Ages?
a) Assertion of the independent existence of universals
b) Denial of the existence of matter
c) Assertion of the reality of only certain things
d) A way to prove the existence of God
e) Statement of the connection between the general and the individual Answer: in
a) Thomas Aquinas
b) Epicurus
c) Plato
d) Machiavelli
e) Zeno Answer: b
17. The problem put forward by the ideas of the Milesian school:
a) Beauty
b) the beginning
d) a person
e) Morality Answer: b
18. Subjective idealism typical for:
a) Hegel
b) Platonov
d) Descartes
e) Berkeley Answer: d
19. The doctrine of idols, which are an obstacle to the knowledge of the world by man, was created by:
b) Spinoza
c) Descartes
e) Bacon Answer: d
20. The principle "I think, therefore I am" is the starting point for philosophy:
b) Hobbes
d) Descartes
e) Berkeley Answer: d
21. Number as the fundamental principle of the world appears in the teaching:
a) Protagora
b) Thales
c) Cicero
d) Pythagoras
e) Aristotle Answer: d
22. The method of induction has become famous in philosophy thanks to:
a) Descartes
b) Leibniz
c) Bacon
d) Spinoza
e) Yumu Answer: c
a) The main law of moral behavior
b) The Constitution of the German Empire
c) The physical law of the interdependence of bodies
d) Method of cognition
e) The standard of judgment Answer: a
24. What virtues does Socrates highlight:
a) Observance of external propriety, militancy
b) Moderation, courage, justice
c) Taming of passions, love for the Motherland, obedience to the law
d) Mind, beauty, health, fame and fortune
e) Love for neighbor, respect for elders Answer: b
25. The earliest world religion is ...
a) Judaism
b) Buddhism
c) Christianity
e) Hinduism Answer: b
26. Initial, impersonal world law in ancient Chinese philosophy:
e) Whether Answer: b
27. The soul of the world, the connecting grain between God and his creation, according to Solovyov, is ...
a) Demiurge
d) One
e) World soul Answer: b
28. We provide the natural science direction in "Russian cosmism" is ...
a) Berdyaev
b) Bogdanov
c) Vernadsky
d) Fedorov
e) Shestov Answer: d
29. The structure of the psyche, according to Sigmund Freud, consists of ...
a) Eros and Thanatos
b) I and Not-I
c) Super-I, I, It
d) Libido, sublimation
e) Archetypes. Answer: in
30. The philosophical direction, according to which a person is doomed to loneliness and the meaninglessness of existence, is ...
a) Marxism
b) Pragmatism
c) Voluntarism
d) Existentialism