Orthodox and non-orthodox schools of philosophy. Philosophy of ancient India
Unorthodox Schools in Ancient and Medieval India
Charvaka lokayata(6th century BC) - this is the oldest materialistic doctrine India. Representatives criticized the Vedas, the institution of priests, and traditional beliefs. They believed that beliefs should be free. The most developed trend of the school is the philosophy of the Charvaks (char-4, vak-word). Important 4 components of the world are earth, water, air and fire.
Jain school(VI century BC). At the center of this direction is the being of the individual. The essence of personality, from the point of view of Jainism, is dualistic: spiritual and material. The connecting link between them is karma, which is understood as subtle matter. This combination of inanimate, rough matter with the soul through karma leads to the emergence of personality. The goal of the teachings of Jainism is the achievement of such a way of life, by which it is possible to liberate a person from passions. Jainism considers the development of consciousness to be the main sign of the human soul.
Buddhism(7-6 centuries BC) The founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), his philosophy is aimed at the moral perfection of man. Buddhism is based on the "Four Noble Truths":
1) the truth of life (the existence of a person from birth to death is inextricably linked with suffering);
2) the truth about the cause of suffering (it is connected with the desires and passions of a person);
3) the truth of liberation from suffering (renunciation of desires);
4) the truth of the path leading to liberation from suffering, which rejects both a life devoted only to sensual pleasures and the path of austerity and self-torture.
Orthodox schools V Indian philosophy
Vedanta(4-2 in BC) The largest representative is Shankara. In this school, the texts of the Vedas are regarded as sacred books. This school developed a monistic doctrine of the world. The substance of the world yavl. a single, permanent absolute spiritual principle brahman or atman. The world around you can be understood with the help of true knowledge which is accessible through the realization of Brahman.
Mimansa(6th century AD) founder of Jaimini
The main task of this school is to continue the traditions of the Vedas. This school developed a dualistic view of the world. She combined the traditions of idealism and materialism, i.e. along with the existence of immortal people. Souls, there are phenomena of nature.
Sankhya Its founder was Kapila (VI century BC).
Representatives of this school were dualists and did not recognize the existence of a God standing above the natural world. According to their teaching, along with the primary matter, there are souls that do not have activity if they are considered by themselves.
Yoga means "concentration", the sage Patanjali (II century BC) is considered its founder. Yoga is a philosophy and practice. Yoga is an individual path of salvation and is intended to achieve control over feelings and thoughts, primarily through meditation.
Vaisheshika(6-5 AD) the name of this school comes from the word vishesh, which means peculiarity. When explaining the environment environment, this school refers to such concepts as matter, substance, quantity. This was the first school of atomism. According to them, there are five substances: earth, water, light, air and ether.
Nyaya(3rd century AD) was created by the great sage Gotama. It is a realistic philosophy based mainly on the laws of logic. It recognizes the existence of four independent sources of true knowledge: perception, conclusion, or conclusion, comparison, and evidence, or evidence.
2. Characteristic features of the philosophy of ancient China. The main philosophical schools of ancient China.
Ancient Chinese philosophy has a pronounced religious character. The specificity of ancient Chinese philosophy is associated with its special role in the acute struggle waged by the states of ancient China. At that time, philosophers in China were often various officials, ministers, and ambassadors. Therefore, they were interested in the problems of management, the relationship of social groups, ethics, ritual, politics. Philosophy was not aimed at developing an ideal, but at maintaining the status quo. The philosophy of ancient China did not have a strict conceptual apparatus, which is associated with the underdevelopment of logic. A specific feature of ancient Chinese philosophy was the consideration of the world as a single organism. The world is one. All its elements are interconnected and continuously maintain balance. A special place in the world belongs to Heaven, which personified the highest regulatory force, reason and justice. Heaven gives the right to power to the earthly ruler.
Confucianism(6th-5th century BC) founder of Konfu Tzu. The main thing in the teaching is the idea of the cult of the sky-tien. All events on earth are predetermined by heaven, the fate of people is decided by it. The main theme of Confucius's philosophizing is the relationship of man, family and state. A strong state is based on a strong family. Confucius did not see a fundamental difference between such institutions as the state and the family. He singled out 5 relationships: 1) between father and son; 2) husband and wife; 3) brothers; 4) families; 5) ruler and subjects.
Legalism(school of lawyers) (8-3 in BC) (representative of Han Fei) opposed their views to Confucianism. It was believed that laws govern people and provide criteria for determining good and evil, therefore, obeying the law, people should discard regrets and various humane considerations. In order to maintain order in society, a system of reward and punishment is needed. The Legists believed that the construction of a centralized state was possible only on the basis of the force of law.
Taoism(6-5 in BC) a representative of this teaching LaoTse. Tao is one of the most important categories of Taoism, it is the natural law of the development of the world and of man himself. From the standpoint of Taoism, the world, man is governed by Tao. Thanks to the Tao, nature and society change. Pers. should not interfere with the natural course of things in an artificial way. This statement was expressed in the principle of wuwei, which means a contemplative attitude towards reality. (Taoists)
3. The emergence and development of ancient philosophy. The search for the fundamental principle of the world. Philosophical schools of the preclassical period. Aporia of Zeno of Elea.
The first significant stage in the history of the origin and development of philosophical thought is ancient philosophy. Its ancestors are the ancient Greeks and Romans. In the arsenal of thinkers of that time, the “tools” of knowledge were subtle speculation, contemplation and observation. ancient philosophers were the first to put forward eternal questions, exciting a person: what is the origin of everything around, the existence and non-existence of the world, the unity of contradictions, freedom and necessity, birth and death, the appointment of a person, moral duty, beauty and sublimity, wisdom, friendship, love, happiness, dignity of the individual. These issues are still relevant today. It was ancient philosophy that served as the basis for the formation and development of philosophical thought in Europe. In the development of ancient philosophical thought, it is conditionally possible to distinguish four important stages. The first, pre-Socratic, period falls on 7-5c. BC. It is represented by the activities of the Eleatic and Milesian schools, Heraclitus of Ephesus, Pythagoras, Democritus. They dealt with the laws of nature, the construction of the world and the Cosmos. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the pre-Socratic period, because it was early ancient philosophy that largely influenced the development of culture, social life and the political sphere. Ancient Greece. A characteristic feature of the second, classical, period (5-4 centuries BC) is the appearance of sophists. They shifted their attention from the problems of nature and space to the problems of man, laid the foundations of logic and contributed to the development of rhetoric as a science. In addition to the sophists, early ancient philosophy in this period is represented by the names of Aristotle, Socrates, Plato, Protogoras. During the period from the 4th to the 2nd century BC. e. ancient philosophy goes through the third, Hellenistic, stage of development. At this time, the first philosophical systems, deep in content, appear, new philosophical schools appear. The names of Epicurus, Theophrastus and Carneades represent this stage in the development of philosophy. With the beginning of our era (I - VI centuries), ancient philosophy enters its last period of development. At this time, the leading role in ancient world belongs to Rome, under the influence of which Greece is also found. The formation of Roman philosophy is greatly influenced by the Greek, in particular, its Hellenistic stage. In the philosophy of Rome, three main directions are formed - epicureanism, stoicism and skepticism.
Thales considered water to be the original (for example, the nourishment of all things is “wet”). Anaxemander-apeiron (boundless, boundless, eternally moving, which is determined by the influence of some higher substance on it (the origin of the cat does not require proof). Anaxemen - air (endless, eternal, mobile. First, condensing, it forms clouds, then water, earth, stones and rarefied turns into fire. Heraclitus - fire (the first noticed that the world is in endless change, movement, and hence the conclusion that fire is the most mobile, most capable of changing the element of being). Ontology (the doctrine of being). All his teachings were in poems. His teaching was directed against the teachings of Heraclitus that being is mobile, changeable. He believed that being is finite, motionless. Zeno is a follower of Parmenides. To the arguments of opponents , who asserted that the world is mobile and changeable, cited “paradoxes” that posed dialectical questions of movement in a negative form. For him, being is consistent. relative to some area of space. As a result, the sum of many states of rest can only give rest, although visually it has changed its position relative to the point. The Pythagoreans - came to the conclusion that the quantitative relations are the essence of things. We considered the first number. They tried to display the essence of the world with the help of geometric figures. Anatomists believed that all bodies are composed of atoms (the final indivisible unit). Atmas + emptiness is the basis of everything that exists.
4. Classical period of ancient Greek philosophy: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle. Changes in philosophical problems in the classical period.
A characteristic feature of the second, classical, period (5-4 centuries BC) is the appearance of sophists. They shifted their attention from the problems of nature and space to the problems of man, laid the foundations of logic and contributed to the development of rhetoric as a science. In addition to the sophists, early ancient philosophy in this period is represented by the names of Aristotle, Socrates, Plato.
The philosophy of Socrates is his life. With his own life and death, he showed his contemporaries and descendants what is the true meaning of human existence.
The problem of the meaning of life is the main thing that occupied Socrates. What does a person live for? What is the essence of the human personality? What is good and what is evil? All these questions are basic for Socrates. Socrates made a kind of revolution in the ancient Greek consciousness, for for him the real life values were not in external circumstances, to which most people so aspire. The main occupation of a person in life is the education of his own soul through rational, moral behavior. Socrates saw his mission in encouraging people to search for the truth.
In his writings, Plato appears as the first thinker in European history, striving to create a holistic philosophical system- from the standpoint of philosophical views he developed teachings about almost all aspects human life: about being (ontology), about space (cosmology), about cognition (epistemology), about the soul (psychology), about God (teleology), about society (sociology), about morality (ethics).
Ontology is the doctrine of being; the doctrine of being as such. Questions of ontology are the most ancient theme of European philosophy, dating back to the pre-Socratics. The most important contribution to the development of ontological issues was made by Plato and Aristotle. The core of Plato's philosophical teachings is his theory of the world of ideas.
Gnoseology is the doctrine of knowledge.
Cosmology is closely connected with the doctrine of being in Plato's system. Here Plato develops the doctrine of the creation by the deity of the Cosmos from the primitive Chaos.
Ethics. Ontology, cosmology and the theory of knowledge in the teachings of Plato are of a subordinate auxiliary character. They act as a methodological and ideological basis for substantiating the main part of this doctrine - moral and ethical. Plato believes that the condition for moral deeds is true knowledge.
The main part of Aristotle's philosophy is the doctrine of being. Aristotle called this teaching "the first philosophy", i.e. a science that studies the most important, basic problems of being, "existing in general."
My philosophical activity Aristotle started out as a sincere Platonist. However, later he came to the conclusion that Plato's philosophy is internally contradictory, and Plato is not able to overcome this inconsistency. And the main conflict is Platonic teaching about ideas.
Aristotle agreed with Plato in one thing - in fact, every thing is the result of the combination of idea and matter. The idea in this case is the meaning, the matter is the means of embodiment of the idea. Continuing to develop his understanding of the philosophical essence of the world, Aristotle naturally came to the question - how do things arise?
Aristotle singled out four principles of every thing. The first principle is form. The second principle is matter. The third principle is the driving cause. The fourth principle is expediency, purpose.
Aristotle's general philosophical ideas allowed him to create a unique system of sciences, which included metaphysics, physics, psychology, and logic. In addition, the so-called practical sciences are included in this system.
5. Hellenic-Roman period of ancient Greek philosophy. Roman Stoicism: Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius.
In another way, it is called late antiquity. Lasted from the end of the IV century. BC. according to the 5th century AD Two stages can be considered in it: the Hellenistic (end of the 4th-2nd centuries BC) and the Roman (I century BC - V century AD).
The Hellenic-Roman period includes such teachings as: epicureanism, stoicism, skepticism, neoplatonism.
The philosophy of this period was intended to somehow orient the Hellenic (i.e., the ancient Greek, namely, the person himself, the subject) in a world with more and more new changes. In this regard, it is necessary to consider the three main philosophical currents of the era of early Hellenism: Epicureanism, Stoicism and Skepticism.
Epicurus (341-270 BC) - Greek materialist philosopher and atheist of the Hellenistic era. He denied the intervention of the gods in the affairs of the world and proceeded from the recognition of the eternity of matter, which has an internal source of motion. The main thing for Epicurus was the practical significance of philosophy - applied philosophy. He believed that atoms differ not only in size and shape, but also in weight, and also have parts, but are not divisible due to absolute impenetrability. He also believed that only the number of atoms, not forms, is infinite.
For him, feelings are the source of happiness. In assessing pleasure, he abandoned the criterion of intensity and preferred duration as such. At the same time, the spiritual criteria of pleasure and pain turn out to be greater than the bodily ones, and therefore it is necessary to strive for spiritual pleasures, avoiding mental suffering.
If we consider Stoicism as a philosophical direction, then it has existed since the III century. BC. until the 3rd century AD The main representatives of early Stoicism were Zeno of Kita (c. 336-264 BC), Cleanthes and Chrysippus. Later, Plutarch, Cicero (106-43 BC), Seneca (c. 5 BC - 65 AD), Marcus Aurelius became famous as Stoics. The views of the Roman Stoics differed from the Greek in tonality - the strength of their feelings and the expressiveness of poetry - and this was due to a change in social conditions: the dignity of people and their confidence were undermined, the psychological margin of safety dried up. Their leading features are not pride, dignity, but rather weakness, a feeling of insignificance, confusion, brokenness. They believed that the true purpose of the mind is not to find a "golden mean" between opposing feelings, but to free oneself from passions.
The main question for them is to determine the place of man in the Cosmos. After much thought, they come to the conclusion that the laws of being are not subject to man, man is subject to fate, fate. Fate or fate may be hated, but the Stoic is rather inclined to love it. They seek to discover the meaning of life. In their opinion, the essence of the subjective is the word, its semantic meaning (lekton). The Stoics are by no means indifferent to everything that happens, on the contrary, they treat everything with maximum attention and interest.
Skepticism (critical) is a philosophical concept that questions the possibility of knowing objective reality.
Gradually, those who denied the possibility of proving anything - skeptics - began to gain more and more influence. The main argument of the ancient skeptics was the existence of different points of view on various issues, and it is impossible to determine which of them is true. They denied the possibility of proving the preference of one opinion over another and refrained from making judgments.
Of the well-known skeptics, Pyrrho stands out (c. 360 - c. 280 BC).
In other words, having gone through a circle of development, philosophy returned to the Socratic "I know that I know nothing", but with the addition "I do not even know that" 2 .
Neoplatonism is a reactionary philosophy of the era of the decline of the Roman Empire (3-6 centuries AD). The idealistic theory of Plato's ideas took the form of the doctrine of the mystical emanation (radiation, outflow) of the material world from the spiritual principle in Neoplatonism.
The most prominent representative of Platonism was Plotinus. Neoplatonists sought to give a philosophical picture of everything that exists, including the Cosmos as a whole.
The main task of a person is to think deeply, to feel his place in the structural hierarchy of being. Good (Good) comes from above, from the One, evil - from below, from matter. The intangible ladder: Soul - Mind - One corresponds to the sequence: feeling - thought - ecstasy.
Neoplatonists see harmony and beauty everywhere, and the One Good is actually responsible for them. Neoplatonism was able to give a rather synthetic picture of its contemporary ancient society. This was the last flowering of ancient philosophy.
Representatives of late Stoicism are Seneca (3/4 BC - 64 AD), Epictetus (about 50 - 138 AD) and Marcus Aurelius (121 - 180 AD) .).
Seneca considered philosophy as a means of tripling man in the world. Seneca was of the opinion that philosophy is divided into ethics, logic and physics. His philosophy is dominated by an interest in ethics.
The philosophy of Seneca is not so much theoretical as applied. He did not identify knowledge and wisdom, but considered it necessary to possess knowledge in order to achieve wisdom.
Epictetus recommends remembering that it is not in the power of man to change the course of things. In the power of people are only their opinions, desires and aspirations, and the rest, including property, body, fame, depends little on them. It is necessary, according to the sage, to strive, on the basis of knowledge, to make the right choice of a line of conduct. Epictetus recommended to abandon the desire to get rich, from the desire for fame and honors. He taught that one should narrow one's needs and be content with only those benefits that a person is able to obtain for himself. Epictetus preached the ideals of asceticism, arguing that true wealth is wisdom. According to Marcus Aurelius, it is difficult to look into tomorrow, it is unlikely that the future will bring the fulfillment of desires. In difficult times, only philosophy can serve as the only support for a person.
Marcus Aurelius taught that the possession of property is an illusion, since whatever a person owns can be taken away.
6. Basic principles of the philosophy of the Middle Ages. Evidence for the existence of God in the philosophy of the scholastics.
Medieval European philosophy- meaningful and lengthy stage (5th - 15th centuries). The main problems of philosophy were: was the world created by God or has it existed from time immemorial? Is the will and intentions of God and the world created by him comprehensible? What is the place of man in the world and what is his role in history through the salvation of the soul? How is the free will of man and divine necessity combined?
The following principles were characteristic of the philosophical worldview of the Middle Ages: 1. The tendency towards sacralization (rapprochement with religious teachings) and moralization (the practical orientation of philosophy to substantiate the rules of behavior for Christians in the world);
2. Biblical traditionalism and retrospectiveness, i.e. The Bible was considered as the most true and significant work, the starting source and measure of evaluation of any philosophical theories.
3. Since the Bible was understood as a complete set of laws of being and God's commands, exegesis was of particular importance - the art of correctly interpreting and explaining the provisions of the Testament. 4. The tendency to edification. This contributed to the general attitude towards the value of education and upbringing in terms of progress towards salvation, towards God. 5. Medieval philosophy was optimistic in spirit, devoid of skepticism and agnosticism. God was not comprehensible by the means of reason, but his instructions could be understood through faith, through illumination.
According to Thomas, the way to prove the existence of God can be twofold: either through cause or through effects. Thomas gives five such proofs.
The first and most obvious way is a proof from the concept of motion. All things are in motion. Everything that moves must have a prime mover - this is God.
The second way proceeds from the concepts of producing cause. There is a certain causal order in the world. It originates from the first cause, that is, from God.
The third way proceeds from the concepts of possibility and necessity. In nature, there are things that arise and are destroyed, may or may not exist. It is necessary to posit a certain necessary essence that does not have an external cause of its necessity, but is itself the cause of the necessity of all others; by all accounts, it is God.
The fourth way proceeds from the various degrees that are found in things. Things are more perfect or less. But one can speak of various degrees of perfection only in comparison with something most perfect. From this it follows that there is some essence, which is the cause of goodness and all perfection for all essences. And we call it God.
The fifth way comes from the order of nature. Thomas believes that all objects are subject to expediency, directed towards the best outcome. "Consequently," Thomas concludes, "there is a rational being who sets a goal for everything that happens in nature; and we call him God" (4. Vol. 1, part 2, p. 828-831).
7. Stages of development and problems medieval philosophy. The problem of universals and its connection with ancient philosophy .
ancient philosophy cosmocentric, the philosophy of the Middle Ages is theocentric (the main problem is the problem of the Christian God). Christianity appeared around the middle of the 1st century and stimulated the development of S.F.
Stages of development of medieval philosophy:
1. Stage of patristics (early 2-3 century AD (Titus Flavius, Clement, Justin), mature 4-5 (Basily the Great, Gregory of Nessus, Aurelius Augustine (Blessed)), late 5-7 (John Domaskin, Boethius))
2. The stage of formation of scholasticism (early (7-12 centuries) - Eriugen, P. Abeyar)
3. The rise of scholasticism (classical 13th century - Bacon, Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas)
4. Late scholasticism 13-14 centuries (Joan Duns Scott, William of Ockham)
The main problems of environments. Phil.
1. The problem of the essence of God and his triplicity
2. The problem of the relationship between faith and reason
3. The problem of the ratio of soul and body
4. The problem of human free will and divine necessity
5. The problem of the origin of evil
One of the most heated discussions in the scholastic philosophy of the Middle Ages was the dispute about universals, which continued throughout its history. This discussion revealed two extreme points of view, the basics of which were similar, but the conclusions were directly opposite.
The problem of universals is the problem of general concepts (set by Plato - "ideas", Aristotle - "matter and form"). Depending on its decision, all scientists are divided into realists and nominalists.
Realists (Anselm of Canterbury, Thomas Aquinas) showed that general concepts in relation to individual things of nature are primary and exist really, by themselves. They attributed to general concepts an independent existence independent of individual things and man. The objects of nature, in their opinion, are only forms of manifestation of general concepts. By realism was meant the doctrine according to which universals that exist before things have true reality. It is only thanks to this that the human mind is able to cognize the essence of things, for this essence is nothing but a universal concept.
Nominalism (from the Latin name), represented by its most prominent representatives Roscelin and Pierre Abelard, believed that general concepts (universals) are only names; they do not have any independent existence and are formed by our mind by abstracting some features that are common to a number of things.
8. general characteristics philosophy of the Renaissance. Philosophical trends of the Renaissance.
The philosophy of the Renaissance is a set of philosophical trends that arose and developed in Europe in the XIV-XVII centuries, which were united by an anti-church and anti-scholastic orientation, aspiration to man, faith in his great physical and spiritual potential.
The term Renaissance is associated with the appeal of humanists to ancient sources, the desire to "revive the ancient world." However, the Renaissance is not a simple imitation of ancient models. In this era, both antiquity and Christianity intertwined, giving rise to a peculiar, different from the medieval culture. The following was taken from antiquity: the revival of the problem of man (anthropocentrism), the revival of natural philosophy, the revival of the importance of sciences and arts. From medieval philosophy, it was retained: monotheistic ideas about the world, that is, the idea of a single God continues to exist, but it is transformed into a new idea of \u200b\u200bGod, which is called pantheism (“all-God”, “God in everything”).
The prerequisites for the emergence of philosophy and culture of the Renaissance were the improvement of tools and production relations; crisis of feudalism; development of crafts and trade; strengthening cities, turning them into trade, craft, military, cultural and political centers; great geographical discoveries (Columbus, Vasco de Gama, Magellan); scientific and technical discoveries (invention of gunpowder, firearms, machine tools, microscope, telescope, book printing).
The characteristic features of the philosophy of the Renaissance include such as anthropocentrism and humanism - the predominance of interest in man, faith in his limitless possibilities and dignity; pantheism - the denial of a personal God and his approximation to nature, or their identification; a fundamentally new, scientific and materialistic understanding of the surrounding world (sphericity, and not the plane of the Earth, the rotation of the Earth around the Sun, and not vice versa, the infinity of the Universe, etc.); great interest in social problems, society and the state.
Since the Renaissance covers a rather large time period, for a more detailed description, it is conventionally divided into three periods:
1. Humanistic - the middle of the XIV - the first half of the XV century Dante Alighieri, Francesco Petrarca, Lorenzo Valli and others. It was marked by a turn from theocentrism to anthropocentrism.
2. Neoplatonic - the second half of the 15th - the first half of the 16th century. Nicholas of Cusa, Pico della Mirandola, Paracelsus and others Associated with a revolution in worldview attitudes.
3. Naturphilosophical - the second half of the 16th - the first decades of the 17th century. Nicolaus Copernicus, Giordano Bruno, Galileo Galilei and others. An attempt to make adjustments to the established and approved by the Church picture of the world.
There are also such areas of Renaissance philosophy as: Political (developed in the Neoplatonic period), which is characterized by the search for the essence and nature of the power of some people over others. Utopian. The social philosophy of the Renaissance (coinciding in time with the second and third periods) is somewhat similar to the political direction, but the ideal form of coexistence of people within the city and state was at the center of the search. Reformation (XVI-XVII centuries) - aimed at finding ways to reform the Church in accordance with new realities, the preservation of spirituality in human life, non-denial of the primacy of morality over science.
9. General characteristics of the philosophy of modern times: the problem of epistemology and methodology of knowledge. The influence of the scientific revolution of the XVII century. on the problems of modern European philosophy
The 17th century is a fundamentally new page in the history of Europe. There are dramatic changes in all spheres of life. Science, as a special way of human cognition of the world, acquires independence, seeks to form a scientific worldview and scientific picture peace. The accumulation of scientific knowledge that has been going on for centuries has borne fruit. The place of philosophy is also changing. She sees her role not so much in metaphysical constructions as in solving epistemological and methodological problems of science, as well as in rethinking the place, role and functions of the state, society and man.
Thinkers of modern times were interested in the problems of cognition and scientific methodology. In philosophy, interest shifted from ontology to epistemology. A subject-object model of cognition has developed (the subject is a person, the object is the world). The idea of God in the works of philosophers gradually fades into the background, but continues to be in demand, especially in the 17th century.
Within the framework of epistemology (the doctrine of knowledge), two currents of the philosophy of the new time have developed: Rationalism - it was believed that the source of truth is reason. (Rene Descartes, Benedict Spinoza, Leibniz)
Empiricism (sensualism) - believed that the source of true knowledge is sensory experience. It was believed that there is nothing in the mind that was not originally in the senses. (John Locke, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes)
T e c a n t i o n
1 Introduction………………………………………………………………..2p.
2 Buddhism……………………………………………………………………3pp.
3 Jainism…………………………………………………………………7p.
4 Charvak………………………………………………………………..10p.
5 Ajivika……………………………………………………………..14p.
6 Conclusion…………………………………………………………...17p.
7 References…………………………………………………..18p.
Introduction
Indian philosophy has developed continuously since ancient times. And many positions and views remain relevant in our time.
Almost all literature on Indian philosophy is written in the language of art connoisseurs - Sanskrit. The philosophy of India paid special attention to religion and reflection on knowledge. It was born in Vedah- religious writings, under the influence of which the first elements arose philosophical consciousness. The largest division of the Vedas is Upanishads(over 200 works). In the Upanishads, the basis of everything that exists is recognized Atman, which consists of speech, breathing. Atman is the inner ruler, the spiritual principle, the soul, the Self, which binds both this and that world, and everything that exists. In addition to Atman, the Upanishads recognize Brahman, which is the beginning of everything else. The coincidence of Atman and Brahman opens the way for man to the highest bliss, which is moksha .
For the ancient Indian philosophers, development took place within the framework of schools. All of them were divided into 2 groups: Orthodox and Non-Orthodox.
Orthodox- those who recognize the teachings of the Vedas and life after death.
Unorthodox- those who do not recognize the teachings of the Vedas.
The orthodox ones are:
1. Mimanas
2. Vedanta
3. Sankhya
4. Yoga
5. Vaisheshika
Three schools are unorthodox:
1. Buddhist
2. Jaini
3. Materialistic (Charvaka)
It is these schools and their founders that will be discussed in this paper.
BUDDHISM.
In the 6th century BC every inhabitant of North India could be familiar with one
of three philosophical theories:
Orthodox Hinduism, based on Vedic knowledge and strict observance of rituals and regulations;
Ascetic practice and meditation, which was preached by independent spiritual teachers (hermits - shramanas);
Materialistic and hedonistic philosophy of the Lokayata school.
This era was characterized by the development of trade, the outflow of the population to the cities and, as a result, the weakening of intra-clan ties and tribal traditions. These reasons forced people to look for new spiritual values.
The founder of this teaching is Gautama Buddha (Sidhardha
Shakyamuni) (563-483 BC), born into a princely family in North India. Later named Buddha (literally awakened, enlightened). He went through a difficult life path (heir to the throne, ascetic, hermit, sage) after which he "saw the light" (527 BC) and passed on his spiritual achievements to people.
The main idea of Buddhism is the "middle way" of life between the two extremes:
- “by pleasure” (entertainment, idleness, laziness, physical and
moral decay) and “by asceticism” (mortification of the flesh, deprivation, suffering, physical and moral exhaustion).
The middle path is the path of knowledge, wisdom, reasonable limitation, contemplation, enlightenment, self-improvement, ultimate goal which is Nirvana - the highest grace.
Key Concepts of Buddhism
Pratitya Samutpada. Represents a fundamental concept of Buddhist philosophy and can be translated in three ways.
dependent start;
Conditional reproduction;
Relationship.
The general meaning of the concept can be conveyed in the following words: “The essential is that which arises; what perishes ceases to be so.” Those. under certain conditions, the object appears, and with a change in these conditions, it disappears. Provides three signs of the manifestation of the universe.
Anigga. Everything in the world is subject to a constant process of change.
Anatta. Everything that exists is not only changeable, but simply does not exist on its own.
Dukkha. The term dukkha refers to all the unsightly aspects of life, even pleasure, because it is known that everything ends sooner or later.
The Four Noble (Aryan) Truths Revealed by the Buddha
1. Life is nothing but dukkha (suffering and dissatisfaction)
2. The cause of suffering is tanha (attachment to life as
the source of suffering; illusory attitude to reality, when the desired is presented as real).
3. With the release (nirodha) of attachments, the cause of suffering disappears.
4. In order to avoid attachment, one should adhere to the middle path, called magga.
Stages of the Eightfold Path of Liberation
1. correct vision - understanding the foundations of Buddhism and your path in life;
2. right thought - a person's life depends on his thoughts, when thoughts change (from wrong to right, noble) life changes;
3. correct speech - the words of a person, his speech affects his soul,
character;
4. right action is to live in harmony with yourself and other people.,
not causing harm to others;
5. the right way of life - the observance of Buddhist precepts in every act;
6. right skill - diligence and diligence;
7. right attention - control over thoughts, since thoughts give rise to further life;
8. correct concentration - regular meditations that make connections with the cosmos.
triple way
The Noble Eightfold Path is not the only way to realize the Dharma. A very common doctrine is the following:
Strength (morality) - a set of commandments;
Samadhi (meditation) - expansion of consciousness;
Prajna (wisdom) is a reflection of the two previous aspects in practical implementation. Wisdom is attainable on three levels:
Srutamaya-prajna - wisdom gained while reading the sutras;
Chintamaya prajna - wisdom gained through self-contemplation and
reflections;
Bhavanamaya-prajna is the highest wisdom acquired in the process of spiritual practice.
Anatta. The Buddha's teaching became, on the one hand, a creative development
Hindu traditions and concepts, on the other hand, completely refuted some religious and philosophical concepts. Hinduism adheres to the concept of a higher “I” (Atman), which, although inherent in the physical body, is at the same time completely independent of it. In the teachings of anatta, the Buddha denies the concept of the Eternal Atman. The true "I" is what feels, sees, thinks and makes life choices. In other words, there is no elusive substance.
Buddhism has never been frozen and finalized
religious doctrine. So it is not surprising that over time, many philosophical and religious schools and trends arose. Moreover, in the process of development, Buddhism organically absorbed many cultural and religious traditions, which were interpreted in line with basic conceptual approaches.
JAINISM.
The central idea of this religious and philosophical doctrine is
principle of ahimsa (doing no harm). Like other philosophical schools, Zhdainism is not content with purely speculative reasoning and sets the main goal of realizing the means of overcoming human suffering. Adherents of the doctrine see salvation in victory over worldly passions that limit the possibilities of consciousness. The very word jina means conqueror. In the Jain tradition, there were 24 teachers known as the creators of the ford, that is, those who led their followers through the turbulent stream of worldly adversity towards salvation and peace. There is historically reliable evidence of the last of them, Mahavir (599-527 BC). Like Siddhartha Gautama, he left home and for several years led an ascetic
Lifestyle. During his wanderings, he met the founder
the opposition Hindu sect of the Ajaviks - Gosala. There is also information about his meeting and dispute with the Buddha. At the age of 42, he reached enlightenment, since then he became known as Jina, and his followers began to be called Jains, the companions of the winner.
Basic concepts
The main work on the philosophy of Jainism is "Tattvartha-
sutra.” Central themes: harmlessness, rejection of categorical
judgments and renunciation of property.
Anekantavada. Rejection absolute truths. The essence of things should be perceived depending on the angle of view from which they are considered. Those. any knowledge is conditional.
Atomism and animism. Jainism is based on the doctrine of the discrete, discontinuous structure of matter and distinguishes four types of manifestation of microparticles (atoms): air, fire, water, earth. The atomic formations of these primary elements are combined into skandhas, from which, in turn, phenomenal objects are formed. However, the world consists not only of material objects, but also attributes of a more subtle plane, the reality of which is nevertheless obvious. These include joy, sorrow, and life itself, the latter being designated as the soul or jiva. Those. we are dealing with a universe in which everything is in the interaction of physical and non-physical structural
elements. The phenomenal world is essentially eternal, despite the conventionality of its earthly manifestations.
Atheism and the ever-changing universe. At its core, Jainism is atheistic. Does not recognize the final merging of Atman with Brahman. Instead, the soul's attainment of ultimate reality is acknowledged. The world is without beginning, but is in a constant process of evolution and involution. At the same time, no evidence is required, the process of change is carried out in accordance with karmic laws. Therefore, the universe is not controlled by God, but by karma.
Although the main social characteristics of the ancient Indian culture basically coincided with the ancient Chinese, in contrast to China, where the social position of the individual was weakly determined by his social origin, in India this determination was the strongest of all ancient Eastern civilizations and followed from the caste division of society. The belonging of a person of ancient Indian society to one of the four varnas (castes): Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras strictly determined his whole life.
It should be emphasized that the central and dominant place in Indian philosophy was occupied by such doctrines, which were based on religious principles.
Unorthodox schools of ancient Indian philosophy (Buddhism, Lokayata).
In the V-VI centuries. BC. a trend appeared that opposed the prescriptions of the Vedic religion. The most striking are Buddhism, Lokayata, Jainism.
Jainism – critical religious doctrine, which took shape in the V-VI centuries. BC. The founder is Vardhaman, who later received the name Jina. At the center of the doctrine of Jainism is the problem of being a person. The decisive significance of two eternal uncreated entities is affirmed: jiva (soul, living) and ajiva (not living, not soul). Living appears in two forms of being - perfect and imperfect. In the state of imperfect being, the jiva undergoes suffering. In perfect being, the jiva passes into the state of nirvana, full of bliss.
Buddhism - religious philosophy, which arose in the VI-V centuries. BC. In the course of development, it becomes one of the three world religions (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism). Founder Prince Guatama (enlightened). Already in the first century of its existence, Buddhism was divided into 18 different sects. Differences in Buddhism led to a division into two branches: Hinayana and Mahayana. Another particular branch that has spread in Tibet is Lamaism. A feature of Buddhism is an ethical and practical orientation. From the very beginning, Buddhism opposed the external forms of religious life, against abstract dogmatic quests. The core of Buddhism is the preaching of 4 noble truths:
- 1. suffering
- 2. there is suffering, and it is necessary to find the cause of suffering, liberation from suffering
- 3. cause of suffering (feeling of fear)
- 4. liberation from desires (the concept of tolerance)
The main principle of Buddhism is: do not do anything to another that you do not want them to do to you. Non-harming to the environment, the preaching of kindness, gentleness, a feeling of perfect satisfaction. The main path is the practice of meditation, complete introspection.
In Thousand BC. materialism emerges as a defining system of views. The most famous materialistic trend was the doctrine Lokayata (loka - the world). Representatives of this direction recognize only this world (there is no afterlife etc.). Oppose all forms of superstition, against the immortality of the soul.
The European term "philosophy" in Hinduism does not have a single and unambiguous equivalent. It corresponds to the concepts of brahma vidya (knowledge of the absolute), darshana (intellectual, spiritual vision), anvikshika (reflexive study). Many important philosophies, expressed in intuitive language, are already found in ancient texts. But the main form of existence and development of theoretical thought were darshans. They are divided into orthodox (recognizing the authority of the Vedas) and unorthodox. There are usually 6 orthodox schools: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Vedanta and Mimamsa. Unorthodox schools in Hinduism are Lokayata, Jainism and Buddhism. The formation of darshans and their development took place in situations of dispute, polemics with each other, as well as with Buddhists and Jains. The darshans did not so much contradict each other as complement each other. Within itself, each darshana developed in the tradition of interpreting and commenting on the underlying text.
Sankhya (thinking, number, calculation) was very popular in antiquity, and in the 15th century. her tradition ended. Its founder is the legendary sage Kapila (until the 6th century BC). The works of ancient authors are unknown. The earliest extant text is Ishvarakkrishna's Sankhya Karika. It is considered the basic text of darshana, and there are many commentaries on it.
The school developed a system of ontological dualism. As two eternal beginnings, a single and changeable matter stood out - nature (prakriti), which is the basis of the world, and eternal unchanging spiritual essences (purushas), embodied in living beings. When the balance of the three forces (gunas) is disturbed, prakriti unfolds into a number of types of beings (tattvas), of which there are 25 in Sankhya. Purusha remains an inactive spectator of these material processes. The school remains an inactive spectator of these material processes. The school also developed ways of spiritual liberation (separation of the spirit from the products of prakriti) and methods of correct knowledge. Sankhya was the theoretical foundation of yoga.
The orthodoxy of the classical Sankhya is not in the least contradicted by the fact that, as many researchers believe, during its inception and formation, this system was close to the unorthodox currents of the religious and philosophical thought of ancient India, primarily Buddhism (this did not prevent, however, the sharp controversy between the Sankhyaists and Buddhists). Such closeness manifested itself primarily in the formulation of the main problem of the Sankhya teaching - human suffering and the path of liberation from it. Strictly speaking, such a question is also central to orthodox systems. The originality of Samkhya lies in the understanding of the causes of suffering and its very essence.
Eight limb yoga.
Eight limb yoga is one of the orthodox darshans (in general, the word yoga has up to 20 meanings in Sanskrit). As a philosophical school, yoga is based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (II-III centuries BC). It summarizes the centuries-old experience of yoga development practice and gives its reflection.
Yoga-darshana has developed 8 stages leading to spiritual liberation: 1) giving up the five types of unrighteous behavior; 2) compliance with the five immutable rules; 3) correct posture for concentration; 4) breath control; 5) distraction of the sense organs from their objects; 6) focusing attention; 7) contemplation of an object held by attention; and 8) enlightenment.
The entire movement of the system is directed from the initial gap between the spiritual essence of man and the cosmic integrity of the absolute to the most concentrated embodiment of human nature. Yoga has reached great depth in the interpretation of psychological categories.
The founder of Nyaya (method, method, reasoning) is the author of the Nyaya Sutra Gotama (III-II centuries BC). A huge body of commentators has been created for the basic sutras, in which the commentary of Uddyotakara (7th century) stands out with new rich content. There are two stages in the history of the school: the ancient nyaya and the new nyaya. The formation of the school took place in a sharp controversy with the Buddhists.
At the center of the school's interests is the methodology of thinking, which later developed into logic. The theory of inference and the doctrine of the forms of syllogism are in accordance with the fundamental realistic principles. The syllogism in Nyaya has five terms.
In the field of ontology, the Nyaya generally adopts the Vaisheshika point of view. In the theory of cognition, Nyaya recognizes four types of simple acts of cognition. False knowledge is understood as taking one object for another.
In the traditional education system, Nyaya is considered one of the fundamental subjects, along with grammar. Without mastering it, it is difficult to understand Indian philosophical texts.
The new nyaya (navya-nyaya) was founded in the 13th century. the logician of the Gangeshes. His main work is Tattva-chintamani (Gem of categorical thinking). The school deals exclusively with the methodology and technique of discursive thinking.
Vaisheshika.
The oldest main text of the school is the Vaishenshika Sutra (“vishesha” - special), attributed to the sage Kanada (III-II centuries BC). However, the work of Prashastapada Padarthadharma-sangraha is considered more authoritative. (A Compedium of attributes inherent in named objects).
The main subject of the school's consideration was realistic ontology. In the doctrine of being, two layers were distinguished (cosmological and reflexive). Prashastapada has 6 types of real existence, later a 7th was added - absence (non-existence). The atomistic theory of matter has also been worked out in detail. The school is characterized by a consistent and deep system, which completely exhausts the problems posed.
The common ontological foundation and similarities in the theory of knowledge and logic led to the merging of Vaisheshika with Nyaya (syncretic Nyaya-Vaisheshika).
Mimamsa (or purva mimamsa - the first or early study) studied and substantiated a ritual that dates back to the Vedic tradition. Mimamsa was formed on the crest of Brahminism as a religion of sacrifice and constituted its self-reflection and philosophical understanding.
The school is based on the Jaimini Mimansa Sutra (4th-3rd centuries BC) and commentaries on them, among which the commentaries of Shabara (3rd century), Kumarila Bhatta (7th-8th centuries) and Prabhakara, his contemporary, stand out.
Mimamsa is the only darshana that was not interested in liberation from samsara. She saw the main goal of human life in being born in heaven, with which the source of constant bliss was identified. The special role of the mimamsa in the history of Hinduism is due to the fact that its adherents were able to offer a holistic and consistent interpretation of the Vedic texts and rituals in all their colossal volume. The main focus of the school was epistemology and philosophy of language. An important section of the mimamsa was the doctrine of the sources of reliable knowledge.
The Vedantists themselves consider the texts of the Upanishads fundamental for their darshana and build their teaching directly on them. The triple canon of Vedanta is, in addition to the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutra of Badaryana.
Historically, the first school of Vedanta was Advaita (non-dual) Vedanta. Its main and first classic is Shankara. Ramanuja's visishta advaita, Madhva's dvaita, Nimbarka's dvaitadvaita, and Vallabha's shuddhadvaita were also of great importance.
The main theme of Vedanta and its directions is the correlation of the absolute and the world, the absolute and man, the path of liberation from samsara, etc.
The directions of the school differed in the solution of the question of the relationship between atman and brahman.
History has marked the growth of the ideological patronage of the Vedanta. She declared all religious systems possible but ineffective in reaching the truth. Over time, Vedanta established itself as a kind of supersystem and philosophical foundation of Hinduism. During the period of national struggle, it was a kind of national flag, playing a leading role among other darshans. The views of Vivekananda, Aurobin Ghosh, Ramakrishna, Ram Mohan Roy, and others took on a Vedantic coloration.
Unorthodox Hindu darshans.
The unorthodox schools of Indian philosophy rejected (or, more often than not, were indifferent to) the basic dogma of the early Vedas. At the same time, their ideological continuity and connection with the Upanishads is obvious. For example, the ideas of the outstanding religious and philosophical tradition of ancient India - Buddhism (founded by Siddhartha Gautama, Buddha - “enlightened” in the 6th century BC) about the primacy of non-existence (non-existent) over being, about the illusory nature, the untruth of the individual human existence, about the possibility of achieving a state of bliss by giving up desires and sensual claims, etc. - all these ideas were contained in the Chandogya, Katha - Upanishads in an undeveloped and unsystematized form. Close to a number of Upanishads are some moral ideas of Buddhism, its restrained and critical attitude towards caste prejudices (according to Buddhism, belonging to one or another varna does not play an essential role for personal salvation, the main thing is the moral merits of a person), etc.
The term "nastika" denoted the followers of the teachings who denied the other world, posthumous rewards and the meaning of sacrifices. Later, they began to designate people who did not recognize the authority of the Vedas. One of the unorthodox darshans popular in antiquity and in the Middle Ages was lokayata (common in the world). The texts of the school have been lost. The school derives all categories of reality from the material world, reaching in its reasoning to nihilism, and often to dead ends. She denied the creation of the world, the existence of the soul, recognized perception as the only means of knowing the world, and so on. The Lokayatikas saw the purpose of life in obtaining pleasures, primarily sensual ones. In the statements of opponents, lokayata often looks like a target for ridicule.
Less obvious is the connection with the Upanishads of Jainism, another significant religious and philosophical school in India (founded by Mahavira in the 6th century BC). The critical aspect of Jainism in relation to the early Vedic traditions is more obvious: here there is a denial of the role of traditional gods, and a sharp condemnation of the ritual (especially those associated with the sacrifice of people and animals), and a more “liberal” attitude towards women (in contrast to Brahmanism, where a woman was reduced to the level of the Shudra varna, the Jains in religious life practically gave her rights equal to men - from access to sacred books to the opportunity to become a nun). The connection with the ideological heritage of the Upanishads, although more indirect, Jainism, of course, has. In the dualistic (allowing the simultaneous existence of material and spiritual substances) teaching of the Jains, the whole world is animated. One soul(Jiva) breaks up into many particles, which are clothed in various material shells and, like "atoms", can pass from body to body. Thanks to this “direct connection” of the soul with any, however small and remote, body, direct (bypassing the senses and mind) knowledge of the past, present and future becomes possible, in fact, spiritual vision. This kind of intellectual construction to a large extent reproduces similar thought patterns from the Kaushitaki Upanishad, where we are talking about the directly cognizing Atman, freely moving from one body to another (the word "atman" means "running").
For analysis, it is proposed to use the following three sayings of the Buddha:
“391, 396. I call a brahmin one who has not committed evil either in body, or word, or thought, who restrains himself in three things. But I do not call a person a Brahmin just because of his birth or because of his mother... I call a Brahmin one who is free from attachment and devoid of benefits.
423. I call a brahmin one who knows his former existence and sees heaven and hell; who, being a sage full of perfect knowledge, has achieved the annihilation of birth; who has done all that can be done."
Buddhism first addressed a person not as a representative of any class, clan, tribe or a certain gender, but as a person (unlike the followers of Brahmanism, the Buddha believed that women, along with men, are capable of achieving the highest spiritual perfection). For Buddhism, only personal merit was important in a person. Thus, the word "brahmin" Buddha calls any noble and wise man regardless of its origin.
The Dhammapada is one of those works which, according to tradition, are composed of sayings attributed to the Buddha and uttered by him on this or that occasion. If we also take into account that the Dhammapada very fully and broadly sets out the basic principles of the moral and ethical doctrine of early Buddhism, then the authority that it enjoyed and still enjoys among the followers of Buddhism, who rightly see in it a compendium of Buddhist wisdom, a work that claims to as a textbook of life.
For our time, the significance of the Dhammapada lies, perhaps, primarily in the fact that it is one of the highest achievements of ancient Indian and world fiction. The beauty of the Dhammapada lies in the extraordinary elegance of its sutras, each of which is a complete aphorism, striking in its capacious brevity and imagery.
Each Dhammapada sutra is a small discussion on a given topic, in which one or another stroke from the ancient Indian Everyday life or an unusually concrete comparison, explaining a certain thought, translates it into the plane of an everyday commentary, a parable, pushing the didactic side into the background. Perhaps it is in such cases that one should first of all see the folklore connections of the Dhammapada, which absorbed the best traditions of ancient Indian folk art and many achievements of purely literary genres.
Ancient Indian philosophy is characterized by development within certain systems, or schools, and dividing them into two large groups. The first group is the orthodox philosophical schools of Ancient India, recognizing the authority of the Vedas (Vedanta (IV-II centuries BC), Mimansa (VI century BC), Sankhya (VI century BC). e.), Nyaya (III century BC), Yoga (II century BC), Vaisheshika (VI-V century BC)). The second group is unorthodox schools that do not recognize the authority of the Vedas (Jainism (IV century BC), Buddhism (VII-VI century BC), Charvaka-Lokayata).
Veda - a set of canonical texts with a complex of religious and philosophical ideas about the world and man, his place in the world, the meaning of being and purpose.
Orthodox schools: Mimansa "Mimansa" - literally "penetration", "research", "reasoning", "discussion". Mimamsa substantiated the authority of the Vedas, the need to fulfill prescriptions and rituals. This school also dealt with problems of the theory of knowledge. Mimamsa defended the reality of the external world, as well as other objects (soul, god, etc.), which a person learns about on the basis of sensory perception (which is given special attention in mimamsa).
In addition to perception, logical inference, comparison, authoritative evidence of sacred books and the recognition of certain unperceivable truths by postulates are considered sources of knowledge. This school marked a relatively high stage in the development of logic.
Vedanta The word "Vedanta" means "the last goal of the Vedas", "the completion of the Vedas." Vedanta, like Mimamsa, fully recognizes the authority of the Vedas. Vedanta proclaims the material world to be an appearance, an illusion arising from ignorance of the true nature of things. Vedanta analyzes in detail the individual soul, the human Self.
According to Vedanta, the soul, connected with its body, is not free - it craves sensual pleasures, experiences a long series of reincarnations. The victory over ignorance, which enslaves the soul, is achieved by the study of Vedanta. Vedanta continues the teachings of the Vedas about Brahman and Atman.
Brahman - the highest, objective reality, an impersonal, absolute spiritual principle, from which the world and all things arise.
Atman - subjective spiritual principle, "I" (human consciousness), soul.
Atman is opposed to Brahman and at the same time coincides with it due to the ability of a person to join the absolute through its mystical knowledge. In the process of cognition, atman and brahman merge. The soul is released. Vedanta demanded that the student dutifully follow the teacher initiated into its wisdom, and exercise in constant reflection on its conclusions until he achieves direct and constant contemplation of the truth. The logic of this school led consciousness to mysticism, to contemplation, to the renunciation of vigorous activity and to the subordination of philosophical thought to religion.
Sankhya. The Sankhya teaching also recognizes the authority of the Vedas. Sankhya suggests that there are two forces in the world - prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). Prakriti is an active creative force, the root cause of the existence of everything. Purusha is a passive force. When they come into contact, the balance in the world is disturbed and the whole multitude of objects that fill the Universe arises.
Yoga. The supposed meaning of the word "yoga" is "concentration". The roots of yoga are very ancient; already in the Vedas it is said about achieving supernatural powers through a special ascetic practice; epics describe ascetics turning to yoga in order to obtain magical abilities.
The sage Patanjali, who lived around the 2nd century BC, is considered the founder of yoga. BC e. The main content of yoga is the development of a practical path to liberation from suffering through the training of the body and spirit. For this, the practice of asceticism is used, a special ethics based on sympathy for all forms and types of life. In the recommendations of yoga there are many rational and, to a certain extent, experience-tested prescriptions related to respiratory hygiene, diet, physical exercises, etc.
Unorthodox schools Jainism The founder of Jainism is considered to be the wandering preacher Vardhamana, who was later given the epithets: Mahavira (Sanskrit "great hero") and Jina ("winner"). Later they began to be used as the names of the preacher, and the religious and philosophical movement as a whole got its name from the latter. Jainism denied the holiness of the Vedas, sacrifices, priesthood, the religious consecration of the Indian caste system of varnas, the decisive influence of the gods on the fate of people, etc. At the center of the doctrine is the being of the individual. Salvation is achieved only through the personal qualities and efforts of people, and not by lineage or divine intervention.
Jainism is characterized by the doctrine of karma. Karma- the law of retribution for all actions committed by a person in earthly life, both positive and negative. Karma determines not only the well-being or unhappiness of existence (health - illness, wealth - poverty, happiness - unhappiness, as well as gender, life span, social status of the individual, etc.), but ultimately the progress or regression of a person in relation to his main goal is to achieve nirvana, that is, the highest, not burdened by the matter of bliss in conjunction with the deity. The human soul (atman) performs actions - good and bad.
The total sum of them and their consequences is the manifestation of karma in broad sense words. New and new ones settle on the accumulated karma... It is not easy to stop this process, to destroy and clean off the plaque, to protect oneself from it in the future. This can be achieved only by great moral and physical efforts for a long time: long fasting, mortification of the flesh, study of sacred texts, strict discipline of behavior. In other words, the monastic way of life. Jain monks take five vows that forbid murder, theft, lying, adultery, and possession of property.
In Jainism, the principle is expressed to the utmost ahimsa- no harm to living beings. Therefore, the eating of meat is absolutely prohibited for the followers of Jainism. Even the life of insects is considered inviolable - Jain monks wear a gauze bandage covering their mouths so that when walking they do not accidentally swallow any barely noticeable insect. For the same purpose, they filter drinking water. They always carry a special whisk with them to sweep away ants and worms from the road, being afraid to crush them. The monk was forbidden to kindle fire - after all, it destroys life both in fuel and in the surrounding air.
But he also had no right to extinguish it, because by doing so he would destroy the life of the fire itself. Lay Jains were forbidden to engage in agriculture, because it is associated not only with the destruction of plants, but also with the killing of small creatures that live in the soil.
Buddhism . The lifetime of the Buddha dates back to the 6th century. BC e. Prince Siddharti of the family of Gautama left the family, the royal way of life, becoming a mendicant teacher. Buddha in Sanskrit means "enlightened", "awakened".
The core of Buddhism is the Buddha's preaching of the "four noble truths":
1) Life is full of suffering.
2) There is a cause of suffering - desire. Human life is full of desires: the desire for pleasure and comfort, success, wealth, power.
3) Liberation from suffering - quenching the passion of desires, avoiding extremes. Such an end to suffering is an achievement nirvana(in Sanskrit, the meaning of this word is “fading”, “cooling”), i.e. a state of complete equanimity, liberation from everything that brings pain, distraction from the outside world, as well as from the world of thoughts.
4) There is a path by which one can get rid of suffering. This path consists in following the eight "virtues".
The virtues consist in right conduct, way of life, right speech, right direction of thought, concentration or stillness, and equanimity. Lokayata (Charvaka) The oldest materialistic philosophical movement. Lokayata denied the existence of any other world than the material. According to the Lokayat doctrine of being, the whole world consists of material primary elements. The things of nature are composed of air, fire, water and earth.
After death, organisms decompose again into their original elements. Apart from these primary elements and the laws of their combinations, there is no other reality. The followers of Lokayata considered belief in the existence of God, soul, paradise, afterlife false, and the objects of this faith are inaccessible to perception.
According to the teachings of the Lokayata, it is impossible to completely eliminate suffering, but it is possible to reduce them to a minimum, and make pleasure maximum. As for the usual ethical concepts of virtue and vice, they are inventions of the authors of sacred books. The same invention hell, paradise and the whole ritual of sacrifice.