Western culture of the 19th century in brief. Abstract: Western culture of the 19th century

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Education State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

All-Russian Correspondence Financial and Economic Institute

Department of History

TEST

in cultural studies

"Western Culture of the 19th Century"

Vladimir - 2008.

Work plan

Introduction

Development of science and philosophy

Romanticism in the artistic culture of Europe

Critical realism in literature and art of France, England, USA

Impressionism and post-impressionism in the artistic culture of the 19th century

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

In the development of European literature, art, science of the 19th century. - the time of the appearance of works that became a huge cultural asset and a conquest of human genius, although the conditions of development were complex and contradictory.

The factors that influenced the main processes and directions of artistic creativity were varied. They included changes in basic relations, in political life, the development of science, the industrial revolution and its results, and the religious aspect.

Development of science and philosophy

The 19th century became a century of continuous revolutionary upheavals in science. First of all, this is the flowering of classical natural science, the creation of a unified system of sciences. The connection between science and production is being strengthened, science is turning from small to big – it now employs significantly more personnel than before. Significant development of philosophical thought has been achieved, general interest in historical science has been shown, linguistics and archeology have advanced; the foundations of scientific folkloristics, art history, and literary criticism were laid.

The strengthening of atheistic tendencies in society leads to a serious crisis of the church - new religions penetrate into Europe, the concepts of separation of church and state, freedom of conscience, religion, secularization of education, etc. are born. All this undermines the influence of religion as an integrating principle, changes the nature of social relations - the unity of society is developing in many ways as national unity and professional - cultural rapprochement vertically, within the framework of the same professional activity.

Great changes that took place in the 19th century. in the economic basis, the development of philosophy, science and technology had a huge influence on the development of literature and art in Europe.

A feature of the development of European culture in the 19th century. there was an exceptional variety of types, directions and genres of artistic creativity. Classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, naturalism, impressionism, post-impressionism - these are the main trends that covered all types of art - literature, painting, music of Europe in the 19th century. However, despite the variety of styles that have developed in this century, the realistic art direction is considered to be the primary one, which has given brilliant results in all types of creativity in all countries.

Romanticism in the artistic culture of Europe

1. Romanticism in literature, music and art - a style that emphasizes the imagination, emotions and creative individuality of the artist; nature and folklore serve as sources of inspiration. The term is often used to describe the culture of the 19th century. in contrast to the classicism of the 18th century. In music he reached his apogee in the works of Schumann and Wagner.

2. Romanticism – direction in art of the first quarter of the 19th century, opposing the canons of classicism, reflecting in works of art the inner world of heroes, ideal feelings and passions.

3. Romanticism – creative direction in European literature of the 19th century; its characteristic features: idealization of the past (the Middle Ages), individualism, exclusivity of images and plots.

ART

In Germany, romanticism arose earlier than in other countries. The pathos of advanced social ideas was alien to many of the German romantics. They idealize the medieval past, give in to unaccountable emotional impulses, and talk about the frailty of human life. The art of many of them was passive and contemplative. These artists created their best works in the field of portrait and landscape painting.

An outstanding portrait painter was Otto Runge (1777-1810). The portraits of this master, while outwardly calm, amaze with their intense and intense inner life. Landscapes Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840) reveal the beauty of the mountain landscapes of southern Germany and the melancholy ghostliness of the moonlit northern sea coasts.

The rebellious essence of romanticism was most clearly manifested in France. There, this artistic movement reflected deep disappointment in the results of the French Revolution, a protest against bourgeois reality, which shattered the dream of the “kingdom of reason and freedom” that the enlighteners of the 18th century spoke about. French romanticism emerged in the early 1820s, on the eve of a new revolutionary upsurge. French artists were fascinated by strong and active heroes, people of deep emotions and passionate temperament. Representatives of the romantic movement defended the artist’s right to directly express his thoughts and feelings, and fought against the academic rules of classicism that constrained creative freedom. " Listen to nature, truth and inspiration" became the main rule of the romantics. They contrast the rationality of academicians with the emotionality and drama of images, the bold dynamic compositions of their paintings; dry drawing - rich bright colors. French romantics sought to find a great theme in modernity; they were also attracted by the exoticism of the East and the liberation struggle of enslaved peoples.

The artist whose name is associated with the first brilliant successes of romanticism in France was Theodore Gericault (1791-1824). Already in his early paintings (portraits of military men, images of horses), ancient ideals retreated before the direct perception of life.

In 1816, due to the fault of the French government, the frigate "Medusa" was lost, from which only a few people escaped on the raft. This event shocked all of France, and Géricault dedicated his most significant work, “The Raft of the Medusa” (1818), to him. He depicted the experiences of those who despaired and who, at the sight of an approaching ship, regained hope for the salvation of people with such a dramatic force that David’s art had never known.

The head of French romanticism in painting was destined to become Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863). The inexhaustible imagination of this artist created a whole world of images that still live on the canvas with their intense life, full of struggle and passion. Here is a scene from Dante's Inferno, and heroes from the works of Goethe, Shakespeare, and Byron, depicted in moments of acute emotions. Delacroix captured numerous images of the people of the East, mainly Algerians and Moroccans, whom he saw during his trip to Africa. In his work “The Massacre on the Island of Chios” (1824), Delacroix reflected the struggle of the Greeks against Turkish rule, which was then worrying the whole of Europe. The artist contrasted the group of suffering captive Greeks in the foreground of the picture with a woman distraught with grief and a child crawling towards the chest of a dead mother with arrogant and cruel figures of punitive forces; A burning, destroyed city is visible in the distance. The picture amazed contemporaries with both the breathtaking power of human suffering and its unusually bold and sonorous coloring.

The events of the July Revolution of 1830 inspired Delacroix to create the well-known painting “Liberty on the Barricades” (1830).

The largest representative of romanticism in French sculpture was Francois Rude (1784-1855). His famous sculptural group “Marseillaise” (1833-1836), decorating the Arc de Triomphe on the Place des Stars in Paris, is dedicated to the heroic revolutionary days of 1792.

In the works of English artists of the early 19th century, primarily landscape painters, romantic passions were combined with a more objective and sober view of nature.

Creates romantically elevated landscapes William Turner (1775-1851). He especially loved to depict thunderstorms, downpours, storms at sea, and bright, flaming sunsets. Turner often exaggerated the effects of lighting and intensified the sound of color even when he painted the calm state of nature. Using the technique of watercolorists, Turner began to apply oil paint in a very thin layer and painted directly on the ground, achieving rainbow-colored tints.

Initially worked in watercolor technique Richard Bonington (1802-1828). In seascapes painted in oil, simple and devoid of dramatic effects, Bonington sought to capture the peculiarities of sunlight, the grayish haze of humid air.

He most consistently embodied a new attitude towards nature in his work John Constable (1776-1837). An important innovation of Constable was his large (the size of a painting) oil sketches, remarkable for the spontaneity and subtlety of his observations, for the freshness and richness of color. In them he was able to convey all the complexity of the inner life of nature in its everyday life, achieving this with the very technique of pictorial writing. He painted with bold, moving strokes, sometimes thick and rough, sometimes smoother and more transparent. Constable's innovative painting had a huge influence on the works of Delacroix, as well as on the entire development of French landscape in the 19th century.

LITERATURE

Romanticism constituted an entire era in the history of European culture. For several decades he dominated literature, music, and painting. Romanticism intricately combines the exclusivity of heroes, individualism, deep interest in the past, the desire and ability to visibly convey the flavor of distant times (historicism), attraction to the unusual, to the exotic (atypicality, exceptional circumstances) and, finally, sincerity, lyricism, penetration into the depths of humanity souls.

It is often said about romantics that they contrast dreams with reality and replace life with a fairy tale.

The romantics despised the entire bourgeois way of life; they considered it an object unworthy of poetic depiction. They depicted great feelings, powerful passions, and unusual feats. The bourgeois was cold, soulless, calculating. The romantics revealed the richness of the human soul, constantly reminding us of how tragically lonely a real person is in the world around him.

First half of the 19th century marked by the rise of the national liberation movement in many countries, and romantics excitedly responded to the call of the time. This main topic many outstanding works of the 19th century. (“Grazhina” by Mickiewicz, “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage” by Byron, etc.).

Passionately expressing their attitude towards the world, the romantics did not hide their social positions. They all despised bourgeois society, but their ideals were often sharply opposed to each other. Some of them glorified the old, the medieval. These were conservative romantics. They argued that the French Revolution only brought new vices, destroying the patriarchal simplicity of morals. The French conservative romantic Chateaubriand called for a return to God, whose faith had been undermined by the Enlightenment. The German writer Novalis painted an idealized picture of the feudal Middle Ages.

The outstanding merit of the progressive romantics was that, despising the bourgeois world, they even more decisively rejected everything that was old, outdated, historically doomed and called forward, although their dream of the future was vague and deeply subjective.

Romanticism dominated European literature for many decades. This was an important stage in the development of human culture. Lyricism blossomed rapidly. The Romantics captivated readers with their richness of intonation, variety of poetic forms, and penetration in conveying human feelings.

Romantics created a historical novel. They aroused interest in national culture, in oral folk art. They have achieved great success in the art of translating artistic works of other peoples into their native languages.

WRITERS OF ENGLAND

In English literature of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. A new movement arose - romanticism. In the lyric-epic poems and lyrical dramas of Byron and Shelley, images of previously unseen romantic heroes appeared - rebels against unjust social orders, people of warm hearts, stormy, titanic passions.

These works contained deep thoughts about the fate of humanity.

George Gordon Byron (1788 – 1824)

His creative life coincided with the years of reaction, which tried to erase from people's memories the ideas of freedom, equality, and fraternity proclaimed by the revolutionary French people. However, the resistance of the democratic forces continuously intensified. A wave of national liberation movement spread across the countries of the European continent; in England itself, spontaneous demonstrations of Luddite machine destroyers were spreading. From the very beginning of his creative activity, Byron called for struggle in lyrical poems, in the lyric-epic poem “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage”, in a political speech in defense of the Luddites, which he delivered in the winter of 1812 in the House of Lords.

In “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage” (the first two songs - 1812, the third - 1816, the fourth - 1818), Byron, denouncing the reaction, glorified the peoples of Spain, Italy, Greece, who fought for their liberation from the power of foreigners. He inspired those who were hesitant to take up arms to fight.

In Gyaur, Corsair, Lara - the romantic heroes of the “Eastern Poems” of the same name (1813 - 1816) Byron is not difficult to recognize, according to V.G. Belinsky, the “colossal, proud and unyielding personality” of the poet himself. In the images of romantic heroes - the sufferer Bonivard, imprisoned in the Chillon castle for his republican beliefs (the poem "The Prisoner of Chillon", 1816), the tragically lonely Manfred (the dramatic poem "Manfred", 1817), the god-fighter Cain (the dramatic poem "Cain", 1821) - Byron glorified the human mind and will, the courage of rebels rebelling against earthly orders or against the laws of the universe itself.

The unfinished poetic novel “Don Juan” (1818-1823) was considered by Pushkin to be Byron’s masterpiece, and Goethe – “a work of infinite genius.” Young Don Juan is nothing like previous romantic heroes - he is a very ordinary person. His numerous adventures in different countries give Byron a reason to criticize the social and political life of Europe, so lyrical digressions sometimes completely obscure the narrative of the hero’s life. Byron is a lyricist who glorifies the poetic love of Juan and Hayde, expressing his own feelings and thoughts about the life and morals of people, about nature; he is also a satirist, ridiculing hucksterism, hypocrisy, hypocrisy, castigating the stranglers of freedom - the reactionary rulers of European states.

Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792 – 1822)

The spirit of protest and freedom pervades the revolutionary romantic poetry of Percy Bysshe Shelley. He was forced to leave his homeland: the revolutionary nature of his first creations frightened the English ruling classes and they launched a campaign of persecution and slander against him.

Shelley's early poems express freedom-loving thoughts and feelings. As a young man he rejected religion. For his treatise “The Necessity of Atheism” (1811), he was expelled from Oxford University. He valued the ideas of the French Revolution. In his political views, Shelley accepted the ideas of utopian socialism.

Denouncing injustice, the oppression of the church, and the monarchy, Shelley was inspired by the ideal of a future free, classless society. In the symbolic poem “The Outrage of Islam” (1818), he captured the struggle of the people of the fantastic Golden City and created revolutionary romantic images of the leaders of the uprising - the girl Tsitna and the youth Laon. Confident of future victory over tyranny, they fearlessly faced death.

In the lyrical drama “Prometheus Unbound” (1819), Shelley embodied suffering, courage, and exploits of humanity in the fate of her hero.

Shelley simply and powerfully wrote “Song to the People of England” (1819), expressing in it justified anger against the drones - capitalists who appropriate the fruits of the labors of workers and peasants. He calls on workers to free themselves from the power of drones by force of arms.

Walter Scott (1771 – 1832)

Walter Scott became the founder of the historical novel - a new genre in literature. Observing modern life and studying history, he realized that in past centuries there was a continuous struggle in society between the old, obsolete and new, progressive principles. In his novels, Walter Scott depicted turning points in history when the fate of individuals and entire nations was decided. Thus, in “The Puritans” (1816), the Scottish people rebel against the despotism of the church and monarchy. In “Ivanhoe” (1820), which shows England in the 12th century, there is a continuous struggle between Saxon landowners and peasants against the Norman feudal lords, who feel like they are the masters of England. “Quentin Dorward” (1823), which takes place in France in the second half of the 15th century, reflects the emergence of an absolute monarchy in the fight against feudalism.

With great skill, Walter Scott conveys the historical and national features of different eras, countries, and peoples. In “Waverley” (1814), “Rob Roy” (1818), “Edinburgh Dungeon” (1818), the writer’s homeland – Scotland, its harsh and majestic nature – appears as if alive. The writer expressed his sympathies for the people in the novel “Ivanhoe” in the images of the swineherd Gurth, the jester Wamba, and the legendary Robin Hood, named in the novel by the free shooter Loxley.

Robert Louis Stevenson (1850 – 1894)

Robert Louis Stevenson chose the genre of adventure novel. He invented interesting, intricate plots, full of secrets. Stevenson contrasts the extraordinary adventures of the heroes with the reality of bourgeois society, which he hates. These features of creativity allow us to call Stevenson a representative of neo-romanticism. His most famous novel is “Treasure Island” (1833) - about an expedition that set out on a ship to look for treasure.

Stevenson's novels Kidnapped (1886) and Catriona (1893) take place in the 18th century, but the writer is not interested in historical events. The plot of these novels is based on the adventurous life of a young Scot, David Belfour.

Stevenson's noble, courageous, determined and resourceful heroes always triumph over the evil that life confronts them with.

The writer’s works express his love for people, respect for peoples, no matter what race they are. An opponent of racism, he spoke out in defense of the people of the Samoan Islands, proving their right to independence.

Stevenson was also a poet. In the collection “Flower Garden of Poems for Children,” he reproduced the joyful world of childhood.

Rudyard Kipling (1865 – 1936)

The books of Rudyard Joseph Kipling, like the books of Stevenson and Conrad, also take readers to exotic lands. However, the ideological orientation of Kipling's work is completely different.

The action of many of his works takes place in India, morals, customs, the culture of which he knew well, since he was born in Bombay.

Kipling's heroes are ordinary people: English officers, officials, sailors, doctors, etc. They selflessly fulfill their official duty, stoically endure loneliness, isolation from family, and the boredom of monotonous everyday life. Kipling has another hero - a simple soldier, whose name - Tommy Atkins - became a household name (collections of poems "Departmental Songs", 1886; "Barracks Ballads", 1892). Kipling sympathizes with him and respects him. He demands the same respect for the soldier from others: after all, the power of England is gained and protected with the hands and blood of Tommy Atkins. Kipling considers the Anglo-Saxons to be the superior race. He sympathizes only with those Indian men and women who obediently accept the rule of the British as a matter of course. But he never embellishes the reality of colonial everyday life, and therefore in his works there are many true descriptions the cruelty and arrogance of the English colonialists, as well as the miserable life of the indigenous population of India (stories “Lispeth”, “On Hunger”, etc.).

Kipling has works in which his reactionary nature completely fades into the background. The best works of the writer include two “Jungle Books” (1894 and 1895), which tell the story of the human cub Mowgli, who was found and raised by a she-wolf.

One of Kipling's most attractive and poetic works is his “Just So Fairy Tales” (1902).

WRITERS OF GERMANY

NOVALIS (1772 – 1801)

Novalis is the pseudonym of Friedrich von Hardenberg, whose short life is surrounded by legend. “Poet of the blue flower”, detached from everything earthly, striving for higher spheres.

Novalis did not live in isolation from reality, but in very energetic contact with it, although this reality was close to him for obvious reasons.

In the poet's work it is difficult to separate philosophy from poetry, the actual artistic from the theoretical. “The Disciples in Sais” (1797) is a fragment of an unfinished novel, but rather a treatise on nature, on man’s relationship with it and on ways of knowing it

For Novalis, any creative work (of a craftsman, for example) is already poetry, hence the confidence that “everyone can become a poet” and the idea of ​​the future as the “kingdom of poetry.”

He was a lyricist, strong, spontaneous, truly philosophical. The poetic cycle “Hymns for the Night” (1797-1799) is a parting with faith in the infallibility of reason, with the boring clarity of its thinking.

The symbolists considered Novalis their forerunner: symbolic ambiguity was embedded in the artistic organization of his poetry and prose. To a lesser extent this is felt in the “Spiritual Songs” (1799-1800). Where the influence of literary and religious tradition is stronger. “Heinrich von Ofterdingen” is a novel that has gone down in history as an encyclopedia of the ideological and artistic quests of early romanticism.

Jacob Grimm (1785 – 1863), Wilhelm Grimm (1786 – 1858)

Collectors, compilers and editors of the famous collection of German folk tales, major philologists who devoted their lives to the study of German culture. Their scientific activity was very diverse. They developed a comparative historical method for studying Germanic languages; Jacob Grim owns the fundamental linguistic works “German Grammar” and “History of the German Language”. The Brothers Grimm were the compilers of the first historical dictionary of the German language (1852); they published the first monument of German poetry, “The Song of Hildebrant and Hadubrant,” and the works of the medieval writer Hartmann von Aue. Their “Children's and Family Tales”, the fruit of many years of close study of German folklore, gained especially wide popularity. In the “fairy tales” published in 1812, since then, repeatedly republished and translated into many languages, the Brothers Grimm preserved their folk basis, democracy, imagery, fantasy, rich and apt language. “Little Red Riding Hood”, “Tom Thumb” and many other fairy tales by the Brothers Grimm, familiar to everyone from childhood, have entered the treasury of world children’s literature.

Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann (1776 – 1822)

The greatest master of German romanticism of the 19th century, he lived and worked at a time of reaction, when many writers tried to hide from gloomy modernity in the realm of romance and dreams. But in his work, fantasy is intertwined with a realistic and satirical image of the world around him. “Hoffmann, with his fantastic caricatures, always and invariably adheres to earthly reality,” Heine wrote about him. Hoffmann's whimsical fiction sometimes bears the stamp of gloomy and morbid moods, which were later picked up by decadent writers. But Hoffmann acts as a sharp satirist-realist, whose satire is directed against the feudal reaction of the petty-bourgeois narrow-mindedness, stupidity and complacency of the German bourgeoisie. It was this quality of the satirist that Marx, Heine, and Belinsky highly valued in his work. Hoffmann's heroes are modest and poor workers, most often commoner intellectuals, suffering from stupidity, ignorance and cruelty of their environment.

The most famous works: “The Golden Pot”, (1815); “Little Tsakhes, nicknamed Zinnober,” (1819); “The Serapion Brothers”, (1819-1821) “Notes of Murr the Cat”, (1820-1822).

Heinrich Heine (1797-1856)

A great German poet whose talent combined deep and subtle lyrical talent with journalistic passion. In 1818, the poet's first poems appeared.

The political and social achievements of the Great French Revolution became the impressions of the poet’s early youth and supported his oppositional sentiments during the Restoration period. From the beginning of the 1820s. Heine appears in print. The poet's systematic literary activity begins in Berlin; Maurer's publishing house published the book "Heine's Poems", which was later included in the "Book of Songs". In 1823-1824. he travels a lot in Germany and Italy, and takes a trip to the Harz. Impressions, observations, historical reminiscences of the trip became the images of his book. "Travel Pictures" The second stage of Heine's creative path begins in the 1830s. Having shown a keen interest in the revolutionary events of the era in his youth, Heine responded to the events of the July Revolution of 1830 in the most direct way - he went to Paris to take part in it.

Since the late 30s. a turning point in the evolution of Heine’s work is being outlined. His journalistic prose (“Ludwig Börne”, “Lutetia”) is marked by a deep analysis of the social situation in Europe; his poetry is dominated by a political theme (“Modern Poems”, “Germany, The Winter’s Tale”).

Heine, more deeply than other German writers, realized the pattern of the decline of romanticism and became one of the founders of critical realism in German literature. Throughout his creative career, realism and romanticism were closely intertwined in his poetics. A great lyricist, fiery publicist, merciless satirist, he wrote a new chapter in the history of world poetry of the 19th century.

WRITERS OF FRANCE

In the 19th century In France, literature entered a new period of development. The activity of the masses and significant progress in education led to the fact that the works of advanced artists began to sound like a “ringing echo” of the era, as Hugo put it.

Victor Hugo (1802 – 1885)

The national poet of France, one of the favorite writers of the French people, devoted his life as an artist and public figure to the struggle against reaction, for the triumph of the principles of humanism and democracy. Hugo in his youth went through a fascination with monarchical ideas, which was reflected in his early poems. However, very soon he moved away from royalism and became the head of the progressive-romantic movement in French literature, whose representatives fought against the epigones of classicism, supporters of the Restoration. His “Preface” to the drama “Cromwell” (1827) became a manifesto of romantic drama. The premiere of Hugo's drama Ernani was the scene of a battle with the classics, which ended in the victory of the new school. A reformer of French verse, creator of romantic drama, a wonderful prose writer, Hugo in his best works speaks of the deepest sympathy for the humiliated and insulted, of hatred of tyranny and social injustice. Hugo's novels, striking with the richness of his creative imagination, are usually built on sharp contrasts, their plots are intricate and complex, the endings are spectacular, the feelings of the characters are strong and tragic. During the bourgeois revolution of 1848, Hugo joined the ranks of the defenders of the Republic. After her defeat, he was forced to go into exile, where he spent nineteen years. Hugo responded to the events of the Franco-Prussian War and the Paris Commune with a collection of poems, “The Terrible Year” (1872). During the days of the bloody massacre of the Communards, he protested against the actions of the Versailles executioners.

The most famous works: “Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris"(1831), "The King Amuses himself" (1832), "Ruy Blas" (1836), "Retribution" (1853),

"Les Miserables" (1862), "Toilers of the Sea" (1866), "The Man Who Laughs" (1869), "The Year '93" (1874).

George Sand (1804 – 1876)

Georges Sand is the pseudonym of Aurora Dupin-Dudevent. The daughter of a nobleman and a seamstress, J. Sand was raised on the estate of her aristocratic grandmother and in a Catholic monastery, and was married off at an early age. After breaking up with her husband, she moved to Paris.

Starting with novels in defense of women's rights in a bourgeois family, J. Sand in the late 1830s and 1840s before the revolution became a journalist, a prominent public figure who shared left-wing republican views, and the author of a number of social novels. She was fascinated by the ideas of utopian socialism. J. Sand took part in the revolution of 1848. In recent years, the writer has moved away from public life. The carriers of the idea - the positive heroes of J. Sand - are often idealized, conflicts are sometimes resolved artificially, plans for the transformation of society turn out to be utopian. Despite this, her work has always enjoyed wide popularity among readers around the world; George Sand showed great interest in books in the 19th century. and the Russian democratic public.

Works: “Indiana” (1832), “Horace” (1841), “Consuelo” (1843),

Alexandre Dumas (1803 -1870)

A most popular and extraordinarily prolific novelist, he gained world fame with his historical adventure novels.

Having moved to Paris, Dumas became close to the writers of the French romantic school, headed by V. Hugo; Dumas's first literary success was associated with the romantic drama Henry III and His Court (1829). His dramas Antony (1831) and Kean (1839) were significant phenomena in the history of romantic theater. Dumas's creative heyday dates back to the 40s, when The Three Musketeers with its sequels, The Count of Monte Cristo and other novels were published. Relying in his books on extensive historical material and revealing an extraordinary lively and rich imagination, Dumas reproduces in a fascinating and dynamic form the life, customs, costumes of the era, characters historical figures. However, his novels are not distinguished by the depth of historical and psychological analysis. He often explains the most important historical events by a coincidence of circumstances, creating spectacular situations and intricate intrigues. His cheerful and energetic, brave, successful heroes invariably overcome any difficulties. Dumas's literary heritage is enormous: in addition to novels and plays, he wrote memoirs, travel essays (including a description of a trip to Russia) and works of various genres.

Prosper Merimee (1803-1870)

An outstanding master of the short story. In the period preceding the revolution of 1830, Mérimée, who was opposed to the Restoration regime, wrote a number of works in which he opposed catholic church and feudal reaction. Merimee widely used the techniques of literary mystification. His Theater of Clara Gazul (1825) is a collection of plays attributed to a fictional Spanish actress, and his next book, the collection of Illyrian folk songs Guzla (1827), is a masterful imitation of Serbian folklore. Merimee turned to the historical past of France in the dramatic chronicle “Jacquerie” (1828) - about the peasant uprising of the 14th century. and in the novel “Chronicle of the Reign of Charles IX” (1829). In the 30s the writer began to develop the short story genre.

Merimee's creative style, although the author, as a rule, explored the world of great human passions, is outwardly dry, calm, and strictly objective. His prose is simple and elegant, his characterizations precise and concise. A great expert and popularizer of Russian literature in France, Mérimée translated a number of works by Pushkin and Turgenev into French.

XIX century in music began as the age of romanticism. Everything bright for composers of this time was concentrated in the beauty of nature, in the poetry of human feelings, in the images of folk fantasy. The work of the first romantic - the Austrian composer Schubert still breathes touching naivety and spontaneity, reflecting the psychology common man. Composers continued his traditions Schumann, Mendelssohn, Wolf. Their art amazes them with its sophistication and variety of moods: here there is tender dreaminess, sharp irony, dark sarcasm, and the despair of tragic loneliness. Schubert and Schumann developed new musical genres - songs and piano miniatures.

German Romantic composer Wagner dedicated his work to opera. He strove for a synthesis of various arts, i.e. to the combination of elements of theater, painting and music in one work.

In the last decades of the 19th century. In France, serious instrumental music begins to gradually push aside opera, chamber and symphonic genres move to the fore.

Of the most significant composers of this period, two - Saint-Saëns and Frank - still belong to the romantic branch of art of the 19th century, as if they completed its development.

Camille Saint-Saens(1835-1921) already at the age of ten performed as a virtuoso pianist and then as a conductor. In 1871, on the initiative of Saint-Saëns, the National Society of Music was created to promote the work of young French composers.

The works of Saint-Saëns, virtuoso, brilliant, distinguished by purely French grace, quickly won recognition throughout Europe. Sometimes the works of Saint-Saëns are close to the classical traditions of Bach and Mozart, but most often romantic features predominate in them. Saint-Saëns willingly uses oriental melodies in music that he heard during his travels in the Arab East.

In “Carnival of the Animals” (1886) – a suite for two pianos and orchestra – there is a lot of humor, the sound of various instruments resembles the voices of animals and birds, depicting their habits. The suite also includes the famous “Swan” - a dreamy melodious song for solo cello. Based on this wonderful music, outstanding ballerinas created a masterpiece of ballet art - the dance “The Dying Swan”.

The most famous opera by Saint-Saëns is “Samson and Delilah” (1868), written on a biblical plot, and was performed on the stages of Russian theaters for a long time.

Belgian by birth Cesar Frank (1882 – 1890) As a boy he came to France, where he began his career as a pianist. He strove to compose symphonic and chamber music. Having become a church organist, Frank became famous as an unsurpassed improviser.

Frank created his best works in the last 15 years of his life. He saw only the dawn of his future glory. The first essay to receive a warm reception was sonata for violin and piano (1886), dedicated to the famous Belgian violinist Eugene Ysaye. The cheerful music of the sonata, as if infused with the sun, is full of romantic impulses and subtle lyricism.

Later became known symphony (1888) and software symphonic poems Frank. Their plots are borrowed from literature, from legends and myths (“Cursed Hunter”, “Psyche”, etc.). "Symphonic Variations" (1885) for piano and orchestra is a kind of concert in which it is believed that the ancient myth of Orpheus taming the forces of hell with his art is realized.

Frank's music can be soulful, soft, and sometimes excites listeners with drama and passion. Some features make it similar to the majestic music of Bach: depth, seriousness, penchant for reflection.

Critical realism in literature and art of France, England, USA

1. Realism – a direction in art that aims to truthfully reflect reality in its typical features.

2. Realism – an artistic method based on a truthful depiction of the most characteristic phenomena of life.

3. Realism – method of truthful depiction of objective reality.

ART

The term realism as applied to artistic creativity came into use only in the 19th century. It was then that in a number of European countries the desire to objectively and truthfully depict reality first appeared. The beginning of a realistic direction in France put landscape painting by artists of the so-called Barbizon school. In the early 1830s, a group of landscape painters settled in the village of Barbizon, 60 km from Paris. They painted rural landscapes. “Ordinary nature is an inexhaustible material for art,” said the head of the Barbizon school Theodore Rousseau (1812-1867).

Rousseau demanded a deep study of nature. He made precise sketches from life, later transferring them into his paintings. The Barbizonians found poetry in everything: in a gloomy day, in the calm before a storm, in the dark silhouette of a plowman against the background of the evening sky.

Jules Dupre (1811-1889) He painted mostly landscapes that were simple in motif, but he was often fascinated by spontaneous natural phenomena. Favorite motives Diaz de la Peña (1807-1876) there were forest thickets with lawns, and Troyon (1810-1865) preferred rural views with herds of animals. Charles Daubigny (1817-1878) He worked for a long time, traveling in a boat along the Seine and Oise. He was especially successful in the calm expanse of water, fields and villages located along the banks of rivers.

One of the greatest landscape painters of the 19th century was also close to the Barbizonians. Camille Corot (1796-1875). He was interested in this or that landscape as a whole, the mood it creates. A subtle understanding of the beauty of the surrounding world permeates all the work of the landscape painter. Corot did not limit himself to landscapes; he painted figures against the background of an interior, as well as portraits.

Theodore Rousseau's closest friend, who worked with him at Barbizon, was Jean Francois Millet (1814-1875). The theme of his work is significant and important - it is the image of hard rural labor. Millet himself came from a peasant background and lived in the village for a long time, so he knew the life of his humble heroes well. In the painting “The Ear Gatherers” (1857), poor women pick up the remaining ears of corn in the field; their bent figures, heavily stepping on the ground, personify hard work and submission to fate. High skill and monumental images make Millet's art one of the pinnacles of French realism of the last century.

Criticism of social injustice and protest against it found expression in the art of the remarkable French graphic artist and painter Honoré Daumier (1808-1879).

As a graphic artist, Daumier worked in lithography and was a master of political caricature. The artist's works, which appeared in satirical magazines, had a huge public resonance in the 30s -60s of the 19th century.

The head of the realistic movement in French painting in the mid-19th century. was Gustave Courbet (1819-1877). Courbet's democratic art provoked attacks from representatives of bourgeois circles. Courbet contrasted the tastes of bourgeois regulars at salons (official exhibitions in Paris) with art that conveyed the morals, ideas and appearance of the era. He painted genre scenes, portraits, landscapes, still lifes, being able to convey the strength and strength of the human figure, the varied surface of the earth, and the foaming crest of a sea wave with shades of paint and the nature of strokes.

Courbet rightly argued that “realism is essentially a democratic art.” True to his progressive convictions, in 1871 he without hesitation took the side of the rebellious proletariat and actively participated in the activities of the Paris Commune.

IN Germany the most significant realist artist of the 19th century. was Adolf Menzel (1815-1905). Menzel's honed skill was manifested not only in painting, but also in various areas of graphics - pencil drawing, watercolor, gouache, and woodcuts. In the film “Iron Rolling Plant” (1875), he was one of the first to address the theme of the labor of industrial workers.

LITERATURE

19th century realism called critical. Engels noted its main features: accuracy of details, typicality of characters, typicality of circumstances.

Realists of the 19th century They explore with almost scientific precision the connection between man and the environment. A person’s tastes, his interests and aspirations, his views on the world are determined by the characteristics of the environment in which he grew up and lives.

Realists of the 19th century: Dickens, Thackeray, Stendhal, Balzac - revealed the social meaning of evil: they understood that evil does not exist at all, it is in the bourgeois way of life, in the material dependence of a person.

Realists of the 19th century they depicted life more soberly, more mercilessly and more accurately. Where the Enlightenment saw a struggle between reason and ignorance, writers of the 19th century. revealed class struggle. Man appeared in all the complexity and contradictions of his spiritual world.

WRITERS OF ENGLAND

Charles Dickens (1812-1870)

The novels of Charles Dickens widely depict the life of England in the 19th century. with its conflicts and contradictions. The realist writer dreamed that his work would help eradicate social ills and make people's lives happier and better.

Dickens's first book is The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club (1836-1837). His naive heroes - Mr. Pickwick, Snodgrass, Tupman and Winkle - continually find themselves in comic situations due to their misunderstanding real life. Some episodes of the novel also reveal the darker sides of reality: the Pickwickians sometimes met with self-interest, they had to face the falsity of the electoral system. Mr. Pickwick learned the injustice of the English court and the horrors of English prisons. The heroes of many of his novels were children: the orphan Oliver Twist, an inmate of a workhouse orphanage (The Adventures of Oliver Twist, 1839), the gentle and courageous girl Nell Trent, the only support of her old grandfather (The Antiquities Shop, 1840), Florence and Paul Dombey, the children of an arrogant businessman (“Dombey and Son”, 1848), David Copperfield, whose fate in many ways repeated the youth of Charles Dickens (“David Copperfield”, 1850). The author angrily talks about schools that were maintained by ignorant people, where little pupils were tortured (“The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby”, 1839). Dickens blamed society for allowing the death of the street ragamuffin Joe (Bleak House, 1853), and created sharp satirical portraits of those whom he considered guilty of the suffering of the people. The writer exposed the criminality of the deeds and thoughts of the shady businessman Ralph Nickleby, the hypocrite Pecksniff, and the parricide Jonas Chuzzlewit (“The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit,” 1844). He condemned the callousness and arrogance of Mr. Dombey, who pushed away his daughter and destroyed little Paul.

But Dickens is also a friend of the poor, the simple working people (A Christmas Carol, The Bells). He was convinced that man is naturally kind and generous, and gave the reader wonderful images of such heroines as the selfless Florence Dombey, as Little Dorrit, active in her love for people.

Dickens did not become a supporter of revolutionary upheavals and did not dream of creating a new society. But he believed in the people, was their defender and champion of their rights.

William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-1863)

“Vanity Fair” (1848) is the name of the most significant work of the great English satirist-realist William Makepeace Thackeray. The hero of this novel is the bourgeois-aristocratic society of England. The writer likened it to a fair where everything is bought and sold: honor, conscience, good name, family relationships, love and friendship.

The heroes of “Vanity Fair” are bright creations of the writer’s satirical talent. He exposes the moral ugliness of the “pillars of society” - despotic, depraved, ignorant and arrogant aristocrats. Thackeray also does not spare representatives of the trading bourgeoisie - London merchants. And aristocrats and bourgeois worship the rich, even if they are insignificant and stupid. The poor man, who is smart, talented and kind, is treated with contempt. Thackeray called this attitude towards life and people snobbery and mercilessly denounced this vice.

Vanity Fair is an angry book. Such are the other books of Thackeray. Whether he writes about the England of his time (the novels “Pendennis”, 1848-1850; “The Newcomes”, 1855), whether he looks into the past (the novel “Henry Esmond”, 1855), he everywhere notices the triumphant power of money, the moral depravity of representatives of bourgeois society .

Thomas Hardy (1840-1928)

Thomas Hardy can rightly be called the heir to the realistic achievements of Dickens and Thackeray.

Self-interest, selfishness, and crude material calculations determined relationships between people and destroyed the ancient, poetic foundations of patriarchal farm life. This gave the writer a feeling of the tragedy of life. His novels were painted in pessimistic tones. For the misfortunes of the heroes he found among the people, Hardy blamed not only society, but also a certain mystical fate. The death of Tess (“Tess of the D’Urbervilles”, 1891), the daughter of a poor farmer, is predetermined by the hypocritical morality of society and the cruelty of its laws. The fate of Jude the Imperceptible, the hero of the novel of the same name (1895), is also tragic.

Hardy's work, and most of all his novels about Tess and Jude the Obscure, is a passionate denunciation of English bourgeois society, which declared Hardy an immoral writer.

WRITERS OF FRANCE

Realistic trend in literature of the 19th century. led by the great French novelists Stendhal and Balzac.

Frederic Stendhal (1783 – 1842)

Frederic Stendhal (pseudonym of Marie Henri Beyle) visited Italy, Germany and Austria with Napoleon's army. In 1812, with the main forces of the French army, he marched all the way to Moscow.

The Bourbon Restoration found Stendhal in Italy. An ardent friendship connected him with the Italian Carbonari - members of a secret revolutionary organization. In the story “Vanina Vanini” (1829), the reader appears a romantically attractive image of the republican Pietro Missirilli, a brave and proud Italian patriot.

Stendhal's two heroes entered world literature as the personification of rebellious, freedom-loving youth. One of them is Julien Sorel, the son of a carpenter from the French province (“Red and Black”), the other is the Italian aristocrat Fabrizio del Dongo (“The Parma Monastery”).

In the image of Julien Sorel, Stendhal captured the most significant character traits of a young man of the early 19th century. Good and bad inclinations, careerism and revolutionary ideas, cold calculation and romantic feelings fight in his soul.

In the novel “Red and Black,” Stendhal analyzes with all the subtlest shades the thoughts and actions of a person, his contradictory impulses. As an artist-psychologist, Stendhal opened new paths in the art of the 19th century.

Honore de Balzac (1799-1850)

The head of the realistic school of the 30-40s. was Honore de Balzac .

Since the 30s. XIX century and until the end of his life, Balzac worked on creating a large cycle of works, novels and stories, which he later united under the general title “Human Comedy”. The writer intended to make The Human Comedy an encyclopedia of modern life.

Balzac's novels brought European fame: “Shagreen Skin” (1830), “Eugenie Grande” (1833), “Père Goriot” (1834), “Lost Illusions” (1837-1843); stories and short stories: “Gobsek”, “An Unknown Masterpiece”, “Colonel Shaber”, “The Case of Guardianship”, etc.

Balzac filled his works with details and everyday details. More than other artists of the 30s. he insisted on depicting everyday life, on a truthful reproduction of the social environment.

The moral decline of people, their selfish interests in the capitalist society of France are reflected in all the works of Balzac. The writer often lacked one novel to tell how the fate of a person turned out, so he transferred his characters from one work to another.

Balzac's genius was also manifested in the fact that he created unusually lively, human characters, acutely feeling the individuality of each of his heroes and the special structure of speech characteristic of each of them.

Impressionism and post-impressionism in the artistic culture of the 19th century.

1. Impressionism - a painting movement that emerged in France in the 1860s. and dominated the painting of Europe and North America until the end of the 19th century. The Impressionists wanted to depict real life, paint directly from nature, and capture the changing effects of light. The term was first used in a negative sense in a critical assessment of Monet’s work “Impression. Sunrise" 1872 (stolen in 1993 from the Marmottan Museum, Paris); Renoir and Sisley were also impressionists, later Cezanne, Manet, Degas and others joined.

2. Impressionism - movement in the art of the last third of the 19th – early 20th centuries, whose representatives sought to convey their fleeting impressions, depicting the world in its mobility and variability.

3. Post-Impressionism – the various painting styles that followed Impressionism in the 1880s and 1890s. The term was first used by English critic Roger Fry in 1911 to describe the works of Paul Cézanne, Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Gauguin. These artists moved away from the spontaneity of impressionism, trying to give their work a more serious meaning.

ART

Impressionism (from the French word impression) developed by the early 1870s. The Impressionists made the sharpness of the visual impression the main criterion of their art. They noticed that the same landscape appears completely different in different lighting conditions - a sunny day and in cloudy weather, in morning and evening light, and set themselves the task of preserving the freshness of the immediate impression in the picture. Therefore, the Impressionists painted their works (primarily landscapes) entirely in the open air, and not in the studio. Studying the effect of light in the landscape, they discovered that black and dull tones occur in nature only when there is insufficient illumination of objects, and they banished black paint from their palette. Trying to convey the quivering movement of air in the landscape, they painted pictures with small, moving strokes.

The Impressionists glorified their native nature, but, realizing the increased role of big cities, they were the first to depict scenes of bustling and dynamic city life. However, concentrating all their attention on the pictorial recording of impressions, representatives of impressionism inevitably came to a certain limitation and one-sidedness of their art, to a narrowing of its ideological significance and purposefulness. Nevertheless, the art of the Impressionists always retained the highly poetic and life-affirming nature of their images, and the purely pictorial achievements of these artists were so significant that their creative heritage has firmly entered the treasury of world art.

The entire path of development of impressionism is inextricably linked with the work of the landscape painter Claude Monet (1840-1926). Monet often painted the same view at different times of the day. These are his series “Haystacks” and “Rouen Cathedral”. With fluent, seemingly careless strokes, he created the impression of a field swaying in the breeze or a Parisian street full of movement. He could capture both the sultry haze of a summer day and the wet snow of a mild French winter.

The cheerful and clear perception of the world, inherent in all impressionism in general, was clearly manifested in the work of one of the main masters of this movement Auguste Renoir (1841-1919), who was nicknamed "the singer of happiness." His art is joyful and radiant. Landscape painting was of little interest to Renoir; the painter’s focus was on man.

In one of his best works, “Ball in the Garden of the Moulin de la Galette” (1876), Renoir gave a wide panorama of a moving, crowded mass, illuminated by uneven glare of light, further enhancing the impression of the continuous movement of people. The genre scenes and still lifes depicting flowers created by Renoir are marked by high artistic skill.

The image of a person attracted attention Edgar Degas (1834-1917). He was also a member of the Impressionist group. But the people in Degas’s paintings know the severity of back-breaking work, they know the devastating prose of life in a bourgeois city. Degas chooses movement as the main means of characterizing his characters. An excellent draftsman, he accurately captures the professional gesture of an ironer or laundress, the pose of a ballerina, or the position of a jockey at a horse race. His works seem like pictures snatched from life by chance, however, their compositions are always strictly thought out.

Degas was a subtle colorist who brilliantly mastered both oil painting and delicate pastel techniques.

One of the best paintings by an outstanding representative of impressionism Camille Pissarro (1830-1903)– “Boulevard Montmartre in Paris” (1897). It depicts one of the central sections of the Grands Boulevards of the French capital - Boulevard Montmartre. The viewer sees a long street, so characteristic of Paris, on an early spring day. Thanks to free and quick strokes, the artist managed to maintain fidelity to visual observation: to convey the living sensation of a street filled with pedestrians and a stream of rolling carriages - and this was decisive in the creative aspirations of Pissarro and other impressionists.

The world of deep dramatic images is created in his works by the largest sculptor of the 19th century. Auguste Rodin (1840-1917). He was associated with the Impressionists and borrowed a number of visual techniques from them. But, unlike the impressionists, Rodin’s focus was on people with deep experiences, great and strong feelings. The sculptor immortalized the feat of the defenders of the city of Calais, who were told about in ancient chronicles, and created portraits of Hugo, Balzac, and Shaw.

Rodin devoted many years to working on the huge high relief composition “The Gates of Hell” (1880-1917). Her images, inspired by Dante’s “Divine Comedy,” allowed the artist to convey the strength and diversity of human passions. One of the central figures of this composition is “The Thinker” (1880). This is a kind of personification of human thought, painfully trying to penetrate the secrets of the unknown. The theme of love repeatedly attracted Rodin. Such sculptures as “The Kiss”, “Eternal Song”, “Romeo and Juliet” are dedicated to her. Repeated in different years by the artist in marble and bronze, they are in many museums around the world.

The creative searches in art of such famous artists of the late 19th century as Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cezanne were more complex and contradictory than those of the Impressionists. They are called post-impressionists (from the Latin post - after). But this term is conditional, because these artists worked not after, but in parallel with the Impressionists. Unlike the Impressionists, they did not form a single group, and each of them followed his own path.

Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890)– Dutch by nationality – is inextricably linked with the French school of painting. Observing the surrounding reality, full of contradictions, the artist in his paintings expressed the deep tragedy with which he perceived life; his images have an excited, disturbing character. Any portrait, landscape or still life by Van Gogh is full of hidden dramatic power. The feeling of depression and anxiety is expressed in the sharp sound of the colors, in the dynamism and trepidation of the strokes.

Paul Gauguin (1848-1903), as deeply disillusioned with bourgeois civilization as Van Gogh, left Europe and spent many years on the Polynesian islands. The nature and life of the native tribes, which seemed to him full of pristine purity, became a source of his creative inspiration. His pictorial style is characterized by a generalized contour drawing, conventional simplicity of the image and the bright sonority of individual colorful spots.

Paul Cézanne (1839-1916), who began his creative career back in the 60s. Having learned the lessons of impressionism, Cezanne subsequently entered into a struggle with it. Instead of the eternal variability of random impressions among the Impressionists, Cezanne sought to reveal in his works the unchanging foundations of the visible world. He found them in the three-dimensional forms of objects. Cezanne wanted to return to art the definiteness of forms lost by the impressionists, the strict thoughtfulness of the compositional structure of the picture.

He always worked from life, without putting a single stroke on the canvas that was not confirmed by visual perception. But, unlike the Impressionists, he conveyed shapes in color regardless of the lighting at the moment, only based on the alternation of warm and cold tones. Cezanne could most fully embody these principles when he painted inanimate and motionless nature, therefore still lifes and landscapes are the most characteristic genres of his work.

A new period in the development of French music was opened by Debussy and Ravel - two different, but complementary artistic natures.

Claude Debussy (1862-1918) Graduated from the conservatory at age 22 with the highest honors. From the very beginning, his compositions showed an original, unique talent; they were full of unusual innovations.

For the first time, the music fully included moods and feelings born of living and vivid impressions of fields and forests, various seascapes, city streets and parks. With his sound images, Debussy conjures up aromas and colors, captures the most diverse corners of the earth and, like animate elements - the wind, the sea.

He created the piano pieces “Sails”, “Wind on the Plain”, “Gardens in the Rain”, “Steps in the Snow”, “Reflections in the Water”, “Golden Fishes”.

The pinnacle of Debussy’s work is the symphony-poem “The Sea” (1903-1905). This musical story full of colors and poetry could only be created by an artist enthusiastically in love with nature. Creative imagination often draws him to ancient or fairy-tale subjects. And in the children's ballet “Toy Box” and the piano cycle “Children's Corner” (1906-1908) there is a lot of humor and cheerful invention.

Debussy's music captures the intonations of folk songs or ancient melodies, and oriental melodies, similar to floral patterns, are woven into it.

Name Maurice Raveley (1875-1937) is also associated with musical impressionism, but in his work he more noticeably reflected new trends.

One of Ravel's early piano pieces is Pavane (1899), an ancient Spanish dance unfolding in slow motion.

"Spanish Rhapsody" for orchestra (1907) is full of grace and brilliance. The first part (“Towards the Night”) recreates a poetic picture of southern nature resting after a hot day. In the following parts there are dances: airy-light Malagueña and habanera full of languid bliss. Finale (“Extravaganza”) – scenes national holiday. A colorful series of carnival masks flashes by, and the dances become especially stormy and temperamental.

Ravel wrote several ballets, each of which is distinguished by its special musical flavor and continuity of musical development.

The ballet “Daphnis and Chloe” (1912), based on an ancient plot, won the stages of the largest theaters in the world. His music is lush, colorful and at the same time refined.

The choreographic poem “Waltz” (1919-1920) was created in a romantic manner: a brightly lit hall, fancy dress, the rapid movement of dancing couples.

One of the peaks of symphonic music was the famous Bolero (1928).

The world of fairy tales is wonderfully embodied in Ravel's music. In the ballet "Mother Goose" (1908) fairy tale characters: Thumb Boy, Beauty, Beast – Enchanted Prince. And in the opera “The Child and Magic” (1925) animals and birds talk, things come to life.

LITERATURE

In relation to literature, impressionism is viewed broadly - as a stylistic phenomenon that has become characteristic of writers of various beliefs and creative methods, and narrowly - as a movement with a certain method and a decadent attitude that developed at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries.

Guy de Maupassant (1850 – 1893)

in the 70s, Maupassant improved his literary skills under the guidance of Flaubert. Fame came to Maupassant with the appearance of his short story “Pyshka” (1880), which was distinguished by its anti-bourgeois orientation and acute social analysis. Before his death in 1893, the writer published more than fifteen collections of short stories, several books of travel essays, and the famous novels “Life” (1883), “Dear Friend” (1885), “Mont-Ariol” (1886), “Pierre and Jean” (1888) and other works. In his work, Maupassant was able to express a critical, devoid of illusions, attitude towards bourgeois society, an understanding of the falsity of bourgeois democracy, the dirty essence of militarism and colonial adventures. Maupassant revealed and demonstrated the spiritual squalor, vulgarity, greed and deceitful morality of the bourgeois owner. Most of his works are characterized by depth and accuracy of analysis of the social nature of human relations. Celebrating power and beauty earthly love(“Moonlight”, “Happiness”), Maupassant wrote many times with bitterness about the profanation of love, its transformation into a means of profit or dirty fun, about adultery and prostitution - human companions (“Loneliness”, “Horseback”, “Walk”) .

A number of short stories are dedicated to the lives of ordinary people. Maupassant showed that only in their midst can true humanity and purity of feelings be found (“Pope Simone”, “Boitelle”). In stories about the Franco-Prussian War, it is ordinary people who are capable of heroic and patriotic deeds (“Dumpling”, “Mademoiselle Fifi”, “Uncle Milon”). The writer depicted not only the greed and ignorance of village owners (“The Barrel”, “The Devil”), but also the eternal drama of the poor peasant (“Father Amable”), and the tragic fates of people who found themselves at the “bottom” of life (“The Tramp”, “ Beggar", "At the Port"). In his stories, he brought out a gallery of bourgeois ordinary people, exposing their spiritual squalor and hypocrisy (“My Uncle Jules,” “The Rain Umbrella,” “Awarded with the Order”).

Edmond (1822-1896) and Jules (1830-1870) de Goncourt

Their creative principles, way of thinking, artistic tastes, interests and habits coincided completely. The richest material for studying the literary life of the era and the creative views of the authors is contained in the “Diaries” of the Goncourts, which were kept daily from 1851 for almost half a century and amounted to more than 20 volumes. Their seminal early novel, Germinie Lacerte, influenced the young Zola and earned him rave reviews. Under the influence of the ideas of positivist philosophy, the Goncourt brothers proclaimed the slogan of “documentary accurate reproduction of life” and accurately described the life of various strata of their contemporary society; They were the first to turn to the life of the lower social classes, depicting the spiritual world of the poor and the tragic conditions of their existence. The Goncourt brothers were characterized by a deep interest in art, which they considered higher than reality. Brilliant experts and collectors, they left a number of significant works: “Art of the 18th Century” (1859-1875), “Actresses of the 18th Century”, a monograph dedicated to Gavarni, books about the Japanese artists Utamaro and Hokusan. After the death of Jules Goncourt in 1870, Edmond continued literary activity. He wrote several more novels, in which new motifs appeared, close to the literature of decadence. The best of his books are devoted to depicting the life of people of art, creative talented people and their environment - these are “The Zemganno Brothers” (1879) and “Actress Faustin” (1882). After the death of Edmond de Goncourt, his fortune, in accordance with the will of the deceased, was transferred to the annual literary prize fund.

Emile Zola (1840-1902)

Zola boldly introduced data from natural science discoveries, medicine and physiology into literature. Based on the theory of heredity, he partly replaced social and historical factors in the formation of personality with biological conditioning. In the 60s he published his first novels and several collections of literary criticism and art criticism, directed against academicism and in defense of the impressionists. In the preface to the novel Thérèse Raquin (1867), Zola first formulated his method of naturalism. In 1868 he began his grandiose work - a series of novels about the Second Empire. For twenty-five years he worked on the creation of the social epic Rougon-Macquart. Natural and social history one family in the era of the Second Empire" (1871-1893). Its initial plan included 10 novels, but subsequent historical events prompted Zola to expand the scope of the cycle, develop new types and social strata, and discover the class antagonism of bourgeois society. In its final form, the series includes 20 novels. Moreover, in the course of the work, the idea of ​​heredity gradually lost its dominant role; it was supplanted by the historical and social point of view. In the 80s, during the period of writing “Germinal” - the first novel about the labor movement - Zola increasingly “came across” socialism. In the 90s he wrote a series of novels “Three Cities” - “Lourdes” (1894), “Rome” (1896), “Paris” (1898), united by the ideological quest of the main character Pierre Froment. Zola embodied his dream of the coming triumph of reason and labor in social utopia"Four Gospels": "Fruitfulness" (1899), "Work" (1901), "Truth" (1903), the last novel of which, "Justice", remained unwritten. For his courageous public speeches, later collected in a book of articles “The Truth Marches” (1901), the writer was sentenced to prison. Zola's wide popularity in Russia during his lifetime was facilitated by his work in the journal Vestnik Evropy (Bulletin of Europe) (1875-1880), where many of his literary critical articles were first published.

Thomas Mann (1875-1955)

Thomas Mann was not only the author of world-famous works, but also a defender of democratic culture, a fighter for peace and cooperation between peoples. In his works he strives to resolve problems of great socio-political significance. The fate of the German people, the historical responsibility of the intelligentsia, the role and significance of art, the place of the artist in society are the constant themes of his works. In books and articles written in exile, and in public speeches, the writer angrily condemned fascism. His anti-fascist activities reached particular scale during the Second World War. Thomas Mann is also known as a theorist of literature and art. He authored a number of critical articles analyzing the work of German and foreign writers and musicians. He knew and loved classical Russian literature very well, which had a noticeable influence on his own work. An artist of great talent, Thomas Mann created monumental works that were included in the golden fund of world literature.

Test

Which of these religions are most widespread in India?

1. Christianity;

3. Buddhism;

4. Hinduism;

5. Shintoism;

6. Judaism;

7. Jainism.

ANSWER: 3, 4, 7. Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism are most widespread in India.

Conclusion

Thus, a feature of the development of European culture in the 19th century. there was an exceptional variety of types, directions and genres of artistic creativity. Romanticism, realism, impressionism, post-impressionism - these are the main trends that covered almost all types of art - literature, painting, music of Europe in the 19th century. writers, artists, and musicians reflected life in their works with all its complexities, nuances of economic and political life, and revolutionary upheavals. Through their works, artists published a wide-panoramic encyclopedia of life in the 19th century.

List of used literature

1. Children's Encyclopedia of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences. Volume 12 – art. M.: “Enlightenment”, 1968.

2. Children's Encyclopedia of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences. Volume 11 – Language. Fiction. M.: “Enlightenment”, 1968.

3. Main works of foreign fiction: Lit.-bibliogr. reference book/ All-Union. State B-ka foreign. Lit.; resp. Ed. L.A. Gvishiani. - M.: Book, 1980.

4. Culturology: textbook. / ed. A.N. Markova. – M.: UNITY, 2001.

5. Brief encyclopedic dictionary. – M.: “AST”, 2002.

6. Modern dictionary of foreign words / I.V. Nechaeva. – M.: “AST”, 2002.

Introduction.
The culture of the 19th century is the culture of established bourgeois relations. This is the period of the appearance of works that have become a huge cultural asset and a conquest of human genius, although the conditions of development were complex and contradictory. The factors that influenced the main processes and directions of artistic creativity were varied.
Among the socio-economic and political factors, social revolutions and the revolutionary movement were of decisive importance. In the 19th century, bourgeois revolutions swept many European countries. They contributed to the establishment and development of capitalism, the solution of pressing historical problems, and awakened in progressive humanity the desire for freedom from social oppression and injustice.
The industrial revolution, which ended in the 19th century, had a huge impact on the development of the Western European world. Its immediate result is an unprecedented increase in the productivity of social labor. The development of production stimulated the rapid development of science. R. Mayer, J. Joule, G. Helmholtz discovered the laws of conservation and transformation of energy, providing a unified basis for all branches of physics and chemistry. A. Einstein created the theory of relativity, M. Planck - quantum theory, which led to a breakthrough in the field of the microworld and high speeds. Many other great discoveries have been made in various fields of science. The creation of the steam locomotive, internal combustion engine, telephone, radio, and cinema revolutionized science and technology. The formation of an industrial society began. Industrial production played a great civilizing role.
In the 19th century, significant development of philosophical thought was achieved. It was prepared by the teachings of I. Kant and I. Fichte. Based on their provisions, a romantic theory was created, the foundations of an objective-idealistic philosophy were laid, formalized in the harmonious teaching of F.V. Schelling. The objective-idealistic concept was further developed in the works of the greatest German philosopher G. Hegel, who gave it completeness in the form of the basic laws of dialectics. In contrast to Hegel’s positions, an idealistic concept arose at the same time, the supporters of which were F. R. de Chateaubriand and A. Schopenhauer.
The 19th century gave the world K. Marx and F. Engels, who created the materialist doctrine in the middle of the century. They, using Hegelian dialectics, developed the concept of historical materialism. Their teaching went down in history under the name “Marxism”.
Influential in the 19th century was the philosophical movement of O. Comte, who was the founder of positivism - the doctrine according to which true knowledge can only be empirical knowledge, based on experience and its accurate description.
In the 19th century, under the influence of atheistic tendencies in society, the church experienced a serious crisis. New religions are penetrating into Europe, the concepts of separation of church and state, freedom of conscience, religion, and secularization of education are being born. These processes undermine the influence of religion on society.
Thus, the great shifts that took place at the beginning of the 19th century in the development of philosophy, science and technology had a huge impact on the development of literature and art in Western Europe. A common feature of world culture at this time was the steady growth of international cultural exchange. This was facilitated by the rapid development of world economic contacts, improvement of means of transport, communications and mutual information.
Let us consider the essence and content of various trends in the development of European culture in the 19th century.

1. FEATURES OF WESTERN EUROPEAN CULTURE OF THE 19TH CENTURY.
The culture of this period is characterized by a reflection of the internal contradictions of bourgeois society. The clash of opposing tendencies, the struggle of the main classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, the polarization of society, the rapid rise of material culture and the beginning of alienation of the individual determined the nature of the spiritual culture of that time.
In the 19th century There is a radical revolution associated with the appearance of the machine, which alienates man from nature, breaking the usual ideas about his dominant role, and turns man into a creature dependent on the machine. In conditions of intensifying mechanization, a person goes to the periphery of spiritual life, breaks away from his spiritual foundations. The place of craft work associated with the personality and creativity of the master was taken by monotonous labor.
Spiritual culture of the 19th century. developed and functioned under the influence of two important factors: successes in the field of philosophy and natural science. The leading dominant culture of the 19th century. there was science.
Various value orientations were based on two starting positions: the establishment and affirmation of the values ​​of the bourgeois way of life, on the one hand, and the critical rejection of bourgeois society, on the other. Hence the emergence of such dissimilar phenomena in the culture of the 19th century: romanticism, critical realism, symbolism, naturalism, positivism, etc. European culture of the 19th century. is a reflection of those contradictory principles that a developed bourgeois society represents, but, nevertheless, it has no equal in the depth of penetration into the existence and spiritual world of man and the creative tension in science, literature, philosophy and art. In development XIX philosophy V. Three defining directions can be distinguished: classical German philosophy, dialectical-materialist philosophy, philosophy of positivism.
German classical philosophy represents the most important achievement of bourgeois philosophical thought. Being the ideology of the German bourgeoisie, historically progressive for its time, it reflected both the unique conditions for the development of capitalism in Germany at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, as well as the major socio-economic changes that took place in the more developed countries of Europe.
The formation of German classical philosophy took place under the influence of revolutionary changes in France, the industrial revolution in England, and the peculiarities of the socio-political situation in Germany, which was in economic stagnation. The philosophical thought of Germany reflected the peculiarities of the worldview of its time and did not represent a single whole. I. Kant was a dualist, I. Fichte was a subjective idealist, F. Schelling and G. Hegel were objective idealists, L. Feuerbach was a materialist and an atheist. But they were united by a line of succession. The core line of development of German classical philosophy was the study of forms of universality, which in Kant and Fichte were considered as forms of thinking, in Schelling and Hegel - as forms of being, reality, spiritual reality. Classical German philosophy is united by the idea of ​​development, dialectics. Classical German philosophy is completed by the greatest materialist L. Feuerbach, whose philosophical system was formed on the basis of the Hegelian school. This philosophy determined the thinking of the century and became the methodological basis for the development of spiritual culture in the 19th century. Its problems are, first of all, human problems, solved through the creation of a systematic picture of the world. The systems of “world-man” relations proposed by German philosophers, almost all (except for the ideas of L. Feuerbach) are idealistic in their attempt to once and for all explain the place and purpose of man. A huge achievement of German classical philosophy is the doctrine of development, dialectics, which took the form of scientific knowledge and became a research method.
A significant contribution to the development of culture is made by Marxist philosophy and Marxist theory, which left their mark on the philosophical and artistic thinking of the 19th century. The program document - the “Manifesto of the Communist Party” - presented a new worldview that extended to the area of ​​social life. Creatively reworking the ideas of classical German philosophy, English political economy, French and English utopian socialism, Marx and Engels discovered the laws of social development and showed the proletariat a scientifically based path to improve the conditions of its existence. In addition, the philosophy of Marxism has historical and cultural significance for the development of any scientific research, including research in the field of culture. The method of dialectical materialism, a universal method for studying a developing natural, conceivable or social object, is based on this theory. Based on this method, realistic art turned to reflecting the contradictions of the inner world of man and its contradictory connections with the processes of social life. The fate of Marxism is dramatic, but its role in culture is undeniable. Positivist consciousness developed under the influence of positivist philosophy. The conflict between humanistic ideals and prosaic everyday life resulted in recognition scientific fact. Positivism relied on the philosophy of the New Age, on the program of practical dominance of science as a rational system of experimental reliable knowledge, discarding metaphysical ideas and becoming the forerunner of scientism. In the development of critical trends in the culture of the 19th century. there were two stages. The first was associated with the revolutionary movement, the second - with the emergence and spread of socialist ideas and the spiritual crisis of bourgeois society, that is, with disbelief in the possibility of spiritual progress, in the feasibility of humanistic ideals. All this led to the emergence of pessimism, apathy, and indifference, which was reflected in such forms of artistic culture as impressionism, naturalism, symbolism, aestheticism and decadence.
Impressionism developed under the influence of positivism. Focusing on the precise fixation of a “fact” (a moment in the depiction of reality) and refusing broad generalizations, the worldview of impressionism was unable to acquire stable patterns. This movement was based on the latest scientific discoveries in the field of biology, physiology, physics and chemistry, in the field of studying sound and visual sensations - naturalism.
The influence of positivism was most clearly manifested in it. His credo is “nature as it is.” Naturalists rejected the arbitrariness of the imagination and compared the work of writers and artists with the work of nature researchers - naturalists. The result of such activity is observation through temperament. A literal reflection of the biological aspect of human life was expressed in the profanation of art, which predetermined its scandalous success among the bourgeoisie, in the emergence of the aesthetics of “physiological art.”
But the most significant shift in the spiritual culture of the 19th century. and the life of society was the formation of romanticism, which claimed a holistic worldview and style of thinking along with others - classicism and realism.
Romanticism is a phenomenon generated by the bourgeois system. As a worldview and style of artistic creativity, it reflects its contradictions: the gap between what should be and what is, ideal and reality. The awareness of the unrealizability of humanistic ideals and values ​​of the Enlightenment gave rise to two alternative ideological positions. The essence of the first is to despise base reality and withdraw into the shell of pure ideals. The essence of the second is to recognize empirical reality and discard all speculation about the ideal. The starting point of the romantic worldview is open rejection of reality, recognition of the insurmountable gap between ideals and real existence, the unreasonableness of the world of things.
It is characterized by a negative attitude towards reality, pessimism, interpretation of historical forces as being outside the real everyday reality, mystification and mythologization. All this prompted the search for resolution of contradictions not in the real world, but in the world of fantasy.
The romantic worldview covered all spheres of spiritual life - science, philosophy, art, religion. It was expressed in two ways:
The first - in it the world appeared as an endless, faceless, cosmic subjectivity. The creative energy of the spirit acts here as the beginning that creates world harmony. This version of the romantic worldview is characterized by a pantheistic image of the world, optimism, and sublime feelings.
The second is that human subjectivity is considered individually and personally, understood as the inner, self-absorbed world of a person in conflict with the outside world. This attitude is characterized by pessimism, a lyrically sad attitude towards the world.
The original principle of romanticism was “two worlds”: comparison and contrast of the real and imaginary worlds. The way to express this dual world was symbolism.
Romantic symbolism represented an organic combination of the illusory and real worlds, which manifested itself in the appearance of metaphor, hyperbole, and poetic comparisons. Romanticism, despite its close connection with religion, was characterized by humor, irony, and dreaminess. Romanticism declared music to be the model and norm for all areas of art, in which, according to the romantics, the very element of life, the element of freedom and the triumph of feelings, sounded.
The emergence of romanticism was due to a number of factors. Firstly, socio-political: the French Revolution of 1769-1793, the Napoleonic Wars, the War of Independence of Latin America. Secondly, economic: the industrial revolution, the development of capitalism. Thirdly, it was formed under the influence of classical German philosophy. Fourthly, it developed on the basis and within the framework of existing literary styles: enlightenment, sentimentalism.
Romanticism flourished between 1795 and 1830. - the period of European revolutions and national liberation movements, and romanticism manifested itself especially clearly in the culture of Germany, England, Russia, Italy, France, and Spain.
The romantic tendency had a great influence in the humanities, and the positivist tendency in the natural sciences, technology and practice.
The term “realism” should be understood in two ways: as a historically defined direction, a type of artistic thinking and as a truthful, objective reflection of reality (in the language of a particular art). Realism evolved from primitive forms of culture. As an artistic method, realism arose in the depths of romanticism in the first third of the 19th century, when the principle of truthful depiction was established in Europe as an opponent to romanticism.
Therefore, in realism, the subject of the image is not the world of fantasy and dreams, but modern reality. The importance of realism in culture is difficult to overestimate.
Critical realism. In the second half of the 19th century. becomes the dominant artistic thinking and method. Critical realism does not at all mean a negative attitude towards reality. This is a form of opposition to the existing (dominant) ideology. The leading role in critical realism belongs to literature. A realistic reflection of reality is determined not by one or another technique, but by a general attitude to reality, that is, artistic truth, which includes two sides: a truthful reflection of existing aspects of life and truth, compliance with the aesthetic ideal. In the first half of the 19th century. realism functioned in close connection with romanticism.
Romanticism in Germany. The basic principles of the literary theory of romanticism were formulated by F. Schlegel and Novalis. F. Schlegel was the first to develop the theory of romantic irony, one of the most brilliant and original creations of the romantic genius. Novalis's aesthetic views are expressed in the theory of art, which should connect the real with the ideal and should strive for universality. A special place in the romantic literature of Germany belongs to Heinrich Kleist and Ernst Hoffmann.
Realism in Germany. It did not manifest itself as clearly as in other European countries, but among the representatives of this trend it is worth mentioning Heinrich Heine (1797-1856), Georg Buchner (1813-1856), who strived for a certain idealization of reality.
Romanticism in England. The most prominent figure among the romantics of England should be considered George Gordon Byron (1788-1824), one of the greatest lyric poets in world literature. Among the outstanding English romantics are Percy Shelley (1792-1822) and Walter Scott (1871 -1892). The English romantics affirmed optimism, the pathos of the struggle against tyranny and religious fanaticism; their works clearly showed an epic element, passionate journalism, and realistic tendencies.
Realism in England. It is distinguished by great originality - pronounced didacticism and critical realism. The most famous English realist writers were Charles Dickens (1812-1870) and William Thackeray (1811 -1863). The romantic movement in English literature is represented by the works of the sisters Charlotte and Emilia Bronte.
Romanticism in France. Its development was influenced by the Great French Revolution, classicism and the Enlightenment. The emergence of romantic ideas is associated with the names of J. de Stael and F. R. de Chateaubriand. The pinnacle of French romanticism is the work of V. Hugo, P. Merimee, J. Sand, and others. In their works, romantic aesthetics is combined with subtle psychologism and strength of character.
Realism in France. It goes through several stages in its development and is characterized by an instant response to significant events in social life. The works of Stendhal, Honore de Balzac, and Postav Flaubert can be considered among the most striking manifestations of realism in France.
2. THE FLOWERING OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPEAN CULTURE OF THE 19TH CENTURY
In the 19th century a new look at the educational process emerged. Pestalozzi put forward the idea of ​​developmental education. This type of education is designed to encourage children to develop independently. The essence of developmental education is the close connection between mental education and moral education. The most important position of Pestalozzi's pedagogy is the connection of learning with production work.
The outstanding German teacher A. Disterweg expressed the idea of ​​universal education, which is based on the principles of natural conformity, cultural conformity, and self-activity. You need to listen and heed the voice of nature, act in alliance with it. It is necessary to take into account the conditions, place, time of birth and life of a person.
It is necessary to develop creative activity aimed at serving beauty, goodness, and truth.
Gradually, a system of didactic rules emerged and the basis of the didactics of developmental education was consolidated. Scientific revolution of the 19th century. preceded by outstanding discoveries in science in the 17th-18th centuries. and its formation as a social institution. Thanks to the works of N. Copernicus, G. Galileo, F. Bzkon, R. Descartes, I. Newton, I. Kepler, a new picture of the world was formed. The emergence of experimental knowledge and a rationalistic type of thinking contributed to its subsequent streamlining in the 19th century. It becomes a scientific system that studies the processes of origin and development of objects, phenomena, organisms and their connections. Fundamentally new was the affirmation of the idea of ​​development and the principle of interconnection in nature, i.e., the emergence of the principles of dialectics in scientific research. A scientific experiment in mechanics led to the establishment of a connection between science and production. Engineering and technology were developed on the basis of mechanics, physics and mathematics.
Science of the 19th century marked by a revolution in chemistry. Discoveries in this area led to the emergence of chemical statistics by J. Dalton, who showed that each element of nature is a collection of atoms that are strictly identical to each other and have the same atomic weight. Thanks to this theory, ideas of systemic development of processes penetrated into chemistry. I. Berzelius discovers the law of multiple ratios and its extension to organic substances, which helped to establish the existence of a connection between objects of the organic and inorganic world. In 1828, F. Weller developed a process for producing urea from inorganic substances, which confirmed this connection in practice. Thanks to the inorganic production of compounds that had hitherto been produced only by living organisms, it was proven that the laws of chemistry apply the same force to organic bodies as to inorganic ones.
An important discovery of the 19th century. is the law on the cell and cell formation by T. Schwenn and M. Schleiden, who created the cell theory and pointed out the unity of the cellular structure of plants and animals in 1838-1839.
M. Lomonosov's ideas about the conservation and transformation of energy were consolidated by the discoveries of R. Meyer, J. Lenz, and W. Grove. The law was discovered in different areas nature. The discovery of this law was based on the recognition of the unity of the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the movement of matter. It can rightfully be considered the second great discovery of the 19th century.
The third great discovery of the 19th century. associated with the name of Charles Darwin, who published the book “The Origin of Species” in 1854, where the evolutionary theory was substantiated. The theory of natural selection, during which the strongest organisms survive, constantly quarrel with each other and then pass on their characteristics by inheritance, later led to the emergence of the field of genetic research. A complex process takes place in nature, representing the interaction of three factors: the struggle for existence, variability, and heredity. Darwin's theory proves that all species of animals and plants are related to each other genetically by their origin and are in a state of constant change and development.
Scientific discoveries of the 19th century. have compiled a huge body of knowledge that has extraordinary depth and space for further research. This contributed to a change in worldview and changed many inert views on nature and its connection with man, giving rise to a new way of thinking - dialectical-materialistic.
Depending on the context, industrial society can be designated as “bourgeois”, “capitalist”, “technically developed”, “modern”, etc. A truly functioning industrial system combines its various principles and structures. Because of this, the term “industrial” is accepted as summarizing the diversity of socio-economic options of modern society.
The most characteristic feature of an industrial society is that production in it is based on the predominance of accumulated labor (capital) over living labor. Accumulated labor takes the form of means of production - technologies, tools, resources, etc., secured in the form of property of any type. Labor is skilled and specialized; developed production means a high degree of division of labor
The second most important characteristic of industrial society, which K. Marx, E. Durkheim, and M. Weber paid attention to, is the deep duality and contradictory principles of its social organization:
- in the contradiction between the ever-deepening division of labor or increasing differences between different parts of society and the need to maintain interaction and unity;
- in contradictions related to the social-class stratification of society, which causes social tension and class struggle.
In the formation of bourgeois society in Europe, the principles of bourgeois ethics, developed and ordered within the framework of the religious system, played an important guiding role. Both Protestantism and Catholicism contributed to this. Over time, the scope of religious regulation shrank, giving way to secular principles and norms.
An important shift in the culture of Western Europe was the establishment of the principle of realism in ideology, art, and philosophy. The mythological and religious worldview is replaced by recognition of reality, which requires taking into account circumstances and overcoming illusions. Utilitarian thinking, closely tied to the needs of real life, was affirmed. In social life, the autonomy of the church and state-political authorities was formed, and stable bourgeois relations were established in each social layer.
Throughout the XIX - XX centuries. in bourgeois society, specialized value orientations are developed and the high prestige of entrepreneurship is introduced into the public consciousness. Ideological guidelines affirm the image of a successful person, embodying the spirit of enterprise, determination, risk-taking, combined with accurate calculation, and the combination of the spirit of entrepreneurship with the national spirit turns out to be an important means of cohesion of society. The establishment of national unity meant the smoothing out of internal differences, barriers, and borders. At the state level, various programs are being implemented aimed at mitigating the consequences of social stratification, ensuring the survival and maintaining the status of low-income segments of the population.
Interstate relations of European countries strove for sociocultural pluralism, although the struggle for independence and autonomous rights led to long and bloody wars. Sometimes the rivalry extended to colonial spaces.
The level of centralization, political and spiritual monopoly gradually decreased, which ultimately contributed to the strengthening of pluralism. The interaction of various centers of influence created a pluralistic system in which the regulation of relations was developed on the basis of the mutual relationship of rights and obligations. Such a system contributed to the destruction of anarchy, authoritarianism and the formation of a mechanism for the legal regulation of relations.
The principles of democracy were implemented primarily in public life, extending to other spheres of society.
The United States, Western Europe, and Japan were the first to enter the modernization stage.
Modernization is associated with the intensive development of technology, caused by the imperative of industrial society, which has already been mentioned: the need to assert the predominance of accumulated labor over living labor. An important economic reason for technization is that without new technical means of production it is impossible to ensure a level of consumption and lifestyle corresponding to the characteristics of an industrial society. An important political reason is that in conditions of national rivalry, more technologically advanced countries and nations can defend their interests with greater success and even dictate their will to less developed communities. Culturally, it is customary to single out two spiritual reasons that have given high prestige to technical society. Firstly, this is the idea of ​​man as an active transformer of nature, and secondly, this is an affirmation of the active role of the mind in comprehending reality and its ability to construct the world in its own way. The influence of technology, however, is not limited to high technology. It is also a transformation of a person’s worldview. Mass production. In an industrial society, production dynamics are measured in physical or monetary terms, that is, according to the criteria of quantity and volume. These criteria apply to other areas as well.
Energy consumption as a criterion of living standards. Using new energy sources, modern technology makes it possible to implement grandiose projects. The focus on new energy sources has given rise to breakthroughs in technologies that have sometimes become very dangerous for humans.
Break with traditions. Technology is constantly facing the future. Improving the standard of living involves improving technology, which must be constantly updated. In such a situation, turning back means the end of progress, without which the very meaning of the modernization process is lost. There is an intoxication in the process of searching for something new, a desire for constant renewal, that is, a break with traditions.
Sense of functionality. Improvement of technology and production, the “materiality” of consciousness, the cult of technology give rise to a rational attitude towards the world as an environment of functional objects. Even man himself began to be viewed from the standpoint of rational significance.
New communications. Communication technology, as it improves, contributes to the intensification of communication processes, the destruction of political and cultural barriers, the bringing of peripheral areas closer to the centers and thereby contributes to the expansion of the modernization process.
New models of thinking. The massive spread of technology required a fundamental change in human thinking. The role of anthropomorphic images and humanitarian principles is decreasing. They are being pushed aside by the natural scientific approach to the world, nature, society, and man. Thinking becomes abstract. New principles of socio-technological organization of activity covered not only large industry, but also spread to all spheres of life, including the spiritual. As a result, spiritual culture turns into an industry of mass consciousness.
3. WESTERN EUROPEAN ART OF THE 19TH CENTURY
In the art of the 19th century. It is necessary to highlight several artistic trends related to the development of the entire culture.
Romanticism in art and literature has common characteristic features: rejection of the bourgeois, bourgeois reality of its day, contrasting the prose of the existing world with the ideal world. This opposition was carried out by the inherent methods of expressiveness inherent in different types of art. For example, the juxtaposition of a day filled with bustle led poets, musicians and painters to poeticize the night, this strange, sometimes surreal world that lives according to its own laws. The night genre is becoming a favorite in the works of romantic artists. Sometimes the lyrics of the night give way to the horror of darkness. Rejection of life and reality gives rise to the motive of departure, escape from life, which is expressed in various forms, including in the genre of travel, wandering, most often to the East. The theme of death takes on a special meaning. The favorite theme of the romantics is the rebel hero, the tragic struggle, the confusion of violent feelings. Portraiture takes on special significance. Artists strive to depict the inner workings of thought, self-absorption, and sensual individuality. Images of turbulent nature allow us to allegorically convey our plans. The theme of heroic struggle against the elements, desperate tension, impulse are common to the romantics of European countries. The desire to learn more deeply the intricacies of the human soul gives rise to the themes of the tragedy of a broken fate, a sick soul, and despair. The most prominent representatives of the French school were E. Delacroix and T. Gericault.
Romanticism was also reflected in landscape painting, which conveyed a special mood and inspiration from the contemplation of native nature. This is, first of all, characteristic of English art, the prominent representatives of which were J. Constable, J. Turner, R. Benington.
Realism. The history of realism as a movement in art is connected with landscape painting in France, with the so-called Barbizon school. Barbizon is a village where artists came to paint rural landscapes. They discovered the beauty of the nature of France, the beauty of the labor of the peasants, which was the assimilation of reality and became a novelty in art. The Barbizon school includes the works of T. Rouseau, J. Dupre, C. Daubigny and others. Close to them in theme are C. Corot, J. Millet. The head of the realistic movement was Gustave Courbet. Historical events that took place in France, from the revolution of 1830 to the Paris Commune, the Franco-Prussian War, were reflected in the work of graphic artist Honore Daumier. His work gained popularity thanks to the advent of lithography, i.e. the possibility of replicating graphic works of art.
Impressionism. The name of this movement comes from the French word meaning “impression”. The history of the genre originates from the creative quests of both realists and romantics. The essence of impressionism is the desire to convey a direct impression of the surrounding world. Using pictorial means, artists sought to convey the uniqueness and illusion of light, air, water, color in all its purity, and subtle nuances of the light-air environment. Painting expanded the boundaries of space, “opened a window” into nature with all its unique and fleeting changes. The founder of the movement was Edouard Manet, but Claude Monet became its recognized leader. Outstanding impressionists were O. Renoir, E. Degas, A. Sisley, C. Pissarro, and later P. Cezanne, V. van Gogh, and the sculptor O. Rodin was very close to them in terms of the nature of his creativity. Impressionism marked the beginning of a new perception of the world around us, allowed us to feel the beauty of every moment of life and had a huge influence on the emergence of new directions in art.
In general, the culture of Western Europe in the 19th century. developed as the culture of an industrial society with all its inherent characteristics and influenced its further formation.
Alienation has become one of the most important characteristics of industrial society. From the sphere of industrial relations, alienation extended to social norms.
Colonialism. The subjugation of more backward countries for the purpose of exploiting their resources was not limited to the establishment of political and economic dominance, but was accompanied by the suppression of local cultures in the name of the universalism of Western industrialism.
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Topic No. 6. Culture and art of Western EuropeXIXcentury.

Basic concepts and materials.

The 19th century is also a new era in the development of European artistic culture. It was during this era that classicism, romanticism and critical realism were formed. Classicism(from Latin classicus - exemplary) began to take shape in the 18th century, mainly in French culture and reflected the ideas of French absolutism. In the 18th century classicism was associated with bourgeois enlightenment and expressed the bourgeois revolutionary aspirations of society. The style of classicism, based on the ideas of rationalism, sought to express sublime, heroic and moral ideals, to create clear, organic images. At the same time, classicism was characterized by features of utopianism, idealization of abstraction, and academicism, which grew during the period of its crisis.

Representatives of classicism in German literature - I.V. Goethe and I.F. Schiller.

Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749 - 1832) - the founder of German literature, went through the period of so-called Weimar classicism and approached philosophical understanding life problems in the tragedy "Faust". Johann Friedrich Schiller (1759 – 1815) – poet, playwright, author of tragedies and dramas.

In painting, representatives of the classical style were the French artists David and Ingres. Jean Louis David (1748 – 1825) created the paintings “The Oath of the Horatii”, “The Death of Marat” and other works of great public importance. Jean Auguste Ingres (1780 – 1867) is a brilliant master of composition, strict fine drawing, the main representative of classical academicism (the painting “The Apotheosis of Homer”).

The brilliant Spanish painter and engraver was Francisco Goya (1746 - 1826). His art was distinguished by bold innovation, passionate emotionality, fantasy and socially oriented grotesquerie. Goya created wonderful engraving works using the etching technique. The immortal creation of the great Spaniard was the etchings “Capriccios” (80 sheets), the work on which took five years. They contain sharp social satire; the artist’s position is directed against lawlessness, superstition, ignorance, and stupidity. They are an accusation against the church, the nobility, and the rulers.

In sculpture, representatives of classicism were the German I. G. Schadov (1764 - 1850), who was close to Enlightenment classicism; the Italian L. Canova (1757 – 1822), who created the tombstone of Pope Clement III and the mythological statue “Cupid and Psyche”, the Dane B. Thorvaldsen (1768 – 1844), whose works are characterized by plastic completeness, cold restraint and idealization of images (for example, the sculpture “ Janson").

By the middle of the 19th century. classicism degenerated into academicism and lost its meaning.

Romanticism- an ideological and artistic movement that has developed in all European countries and North America.

In Germany, romanticism developed at the turn of the 18th – 19th centuries. and received its greatest development in the first quarter of the 19th century. In France, where the traditions of classicism were strong, the formation of romanticism, especially in theatrical art, lasted longer. Romanticism was generated by dissatisfaction among wide public circles with the results of the bourgeois revolution, protest against national enslavement, and political reaction. Representatives of romanticism were characterized by disappointment in the teachings of the 18th century enlighteners. Romanticism contrasted utilitarianism and the leveling of the individual with aspirations for boundless freedom, a thirst for perfection and renewal, and the pathos of personal and civil independence. Representatives of the romantic movement showed significant interest in the national past (often idealized it), the traditions of folklore and culture of their own and other peoples, and sought to create a universal picture of the world (primarily in the field of history and literature). Romanticism reached its heyday in the 20s and 30s of the 19th century.

The true birthplace of romanticism was Germany. German romanticism produced such outstanding writers as Jean Paul (1763 - 1825), Heinrich von Kleist (1777 - 1811). Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann (1776 – 1822) reached the heights of romanticism.

In England, the impact of the lyrical romanticism of George Noel Gordon Byron (1788 - 1824) was enormous. His poem “Childe Harold's Pilgrimage” brought to life a romantic rebel-individualist, a typical disillusioned hero of the post-Napoleonic era. Active humanism and prophetic foresight made Byron the ruler of the thoughts of the then Europe.

The romantic direction in music turned out to be extremely rich and had outstanding talents. These are the German composer, music critic, exponent of the aesthetics of romanticism Robert Schumann (1810 - 1856), French composer and conductor Hector Berlioz (1803 - 1869), German composer, conductor, music writer, opera reformer Richard Wagner (1813 - 1883). The ideas of romanticism were reflected in the work of the Hungarian composer, pianist, conductor Franz Liszt (1811 - 1886), and in the work of the Polish composer and pianist Fryderyk Chopin (1810 - 1849). These composers are the pride of not only European but also world culture.

Romantic tendencies also manifest themselves in painting. The beginning of romanticism in French painting is associated with the work of Theodore Gericault (1791 – 1824). One of his main works is the painting “The Raft of the Medusa”. The most remarkable phenomenon of romanticism is the painting of Eugene Delacroix (1798 – 1863), who often painted canvases based on Byron’s poetry and created a number of historical compositions. So, in the midst of the revolutionary events of 1830, he painted a masterpiece - a picture that embodied the rebellious pathos characteristic of romanticism, which he called “Freedom Leading the People.”

In the architecture of the 19th century. Romanticism did not create its own school, but in industrial countries, especially in England, industrial architecture began to develop rapidly. Built in the 30s and 40s of the 19th century. Stations, bridges, factories sometimes anticipated solutions characteristic of the end of the 19th century. The rapid growth of cities has led to the need to redevelop old neighborhoods and build new avenues and transport arteries. Thus, in 1853, on the initiative of Prefect Haussmann, the redevelopment of Paris began, which changed the appearance of the city beyond recognition.

It should be noted that romanticism developed under the conditions of the bourgeois system, which more and more revealed not only its positive, but also its negative sides and contradictions. suffering due to the discord between high spiritual aspirations and the imperfection of society.

Realism approved in the 30s - 40s. XIX century along with romanticism in fiction and fine arts, but by the middle of the 19th century. it becomes the dominant trend in European culture. Realism in literature and art is a truthful, objective reflection of reality using specific means inherent in a particular type of artistic creativity.

Realism arose in France and England in conditions of the triumph of bourgeois orders. Social antagonisms and shortcomings of the capitalist system determined the sharply critical attitude of realist writers towards it. They denounced money-grubbing, blatant social inequality, selfishness, and hypocrisy. In its ideological purposefulness it becomes critical realism. At the same time, the work of the great realists is permeated with the ideas of humanism and social justice.

In France, in the 30s and 40s, world-famous writers created their best realistic works, such as Honore de Balzac (1799 – 1850), who wrote the 95-volume “Human Comedy”; Victor Hugo (1802 – 1885), author of the novel “Notre Dame de Paris”, as well as Gustave Flaubert (1821 – 1880), Prosper Mérimée (1803 – 1870) – master of short stories, author of plays, historical chronicles.

In the 30s and 40s, realism became the leading trend in English literature. The founder and leader of English critical realism was Charles Dickens (1812 – 1870). An outstanding satirist and humorist, he created works that are the pinnacle of realism. His contemporary William Makepeace Thackeray (1811 - 1863) in his novel Vanity Fair figuratively showed the vices inherent in bourgeois society.

At the end of the 19th century. The realistic direction of English literature was represented mainly by the work of three writers who gained world fame: John Galsworthy (1867 - 1938), George Bernard Shaw (1856 - 1950) and Herbert George Wells (1866 - 1946). In their works, realism was further developed. Thus, D. Galsworthy in the trilogy “The Forsyte Saga” and “Modern Comedy” gave an epic picture of the morals of bourgeois England at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. D. B. Shaw is one of the founders of the Fabian Society, the creator of drama discussions, the center of which was the clash of hostile ideologies, an uncompromising solution to social and ethical problems, for example, “The Widower's House”. G. D. Wells is a classic of science fiction literature. He connects the problems of scientific and technological progress with social and moral forecasts for the development of society. In the novels “The Time Machine”, “The Invisible Man”, “War of the Worlds” Wells relied on the latest scientific concepts.

In the last third of the 19th century. The literature of the Scandinavian countries acquires a global resonance. These are primarily the works of Norwegian writers: Henrik Ibsen (1828–1906), Knut Hamsun (1859–1952). In his sharply satirical social-realistic dramas, G. Ibsen called for the emancipation of the human personality from hypocritical bourgeois morality. His works are one of the highest achievements of realistic Western European drama. K. Hamsun is the author of psychological novels that depict the rebellion of the individual against the philistine environment. At the end of the last century, the work of these Norwegian writers had a noticeable impact on the public consciousness and literary creativity of other peoples.

The pinnacle of realism in the musical opera art of the 19th century. reached the work of the great Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi (1813 – 1901). His brilliant historical and heroic operas are dedicated to the national liberation movement of Italy. The personal drama of the characters is closely connected with socio-political events. They are distinguished by a combination of dynamism and brightness of crowd scenes with in-depth psychologism; They are characterized by an exceptional richness of orchestral colors.

Masterpieces of operatic realism include the musical drama Othello (1886) and the comic opera Falstaff (1892), created by Verdi based on Shakespeare's plots. In these operas, he abandoned traditional arias and duets, replacing them with monologues and dialogic scenes, achieving a complete fusion of music with dramatic action.

The highest achievement of musical and operatic art in France was the work of Georges Bizet (1838 – 1875). The opera Carmen is recognized as the pinnacle of French realistic opera; it is in the repertoire of many theaters around the world.

The realistic trend in French painting strengthened its position in the mid-19th century in the works of J.F. Millet (1814 – 1875), who created a cycle of realistic paintings depicting the life of peasants, and the outstanding master of genre painting G. Courbet (1819 – 1877). The work of these artists was a noticeable phenomenon against the backdrop of pompous academic painting of the Second Empire era. Millet and Courbet became the predecessors of the Impressionists, with whom a new stage in the development of artistic creativity began.

At the end of the 19th century. a new direction has emerged in Italian opera - verism(Italian verismo from vero – true, truthful). Pietro Mascagni (1863 - 1945), Umberto Giordano (1867 - 1948), Giacomo Puccini (1858 - 1924) belonged to it. The aesthetics of verism is to show “life as it is.” Verists' operas were distinguished by their life-like plots and truthful reflection of the spiritual world of ordinary people. The heroes of their operas are peasants, traveling actors, artisans, and artists. Along with melodious vocal melody, composers widely used dramatic recitatives, short ariosos, and end-to-end symphonic development.

Closely related to realism as a style of artistic creativity naturalism.

Representatives of the naturalistic movement in art proceeded from the idea of ​​the complete predetermination of fate, will, and the spiritual world of man by the social environment, everyday life, heredity, and physiology. In the 80s XIX century naturalism becomes an influential movement in French literature. The most prominent representative and theorist of this movement is Emile Zola (1840 – 1902). In his main work, a twenty-volume series of novels (“Rugon Macars”), Zola painted a broad panorama of French society, covering the life of all segments of the country’s population. Other famous representatives of naturalism in literature were the French brothers Edmond (1822 - 1896) and Jules (1830 - 1870) Goncourt, the Germans Arno Holtz (1863 - 1929), Gerhard Hauptmann (1862 - 1946).

Naturalism as a style of artistic creativity is reflected not only in literature, but also in other areas of world culture. For example, in theatrical art, the French director Andre Antoine (1858 - 1943) and the German director Otto Brahm (1856 - 1912) acted from a naturalistic position, and in painting - the French artists Edouard Manet (1832 - 1883), Constantin Meunier (1831 - 1905) and the German artist Käthe Kollwitz (1867 – 1945).

The naturalistic movement in art was heterogeneous. Along with realistic, democratic features, tendencies of decadence often appeared, with their inherent hopelessness, immoralism, and loss of spirit.

At the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. A new direction in art has emerged in Europe - symbolism. This is the period of the birth of modernism. The most prominent representatives of French symbolism were the poets Paul Verlaine (1844 - 1896), Stéphane Mallarmé (1842 - 1898). Arthur Rimbaud (1854 – 1891).

Symbolists tried to comprehend the essence of things through familiarization with the objective-material world. In matter, which distorts the idea, they wanted to see the original idea that fills the thing with meaning. Making their way into the depths of the human subconscious, the symbolists abandoned their task, the human microcosm seemed so incomprehensible to them.

Literature

1. Vanslov V.V. Aesthetics of Romanticism. – M.: Education, 1999. – 240 p.

2. Introduction to cultural studies: Tutorial/ Ed. E. V. Popova. – M.: VLADOS, 1996. – 336 p.

3. European art of the 19th century: 1789 – 1871 / Authors-comp. L. S. Aleshina and others - M.: Nauka, 1989. - 453 p.

4. Kravchenko A.I. Culturology: Textbook. – M.: Academic Project, 2002. – 496 p.

5. Culturology: History of world culture. Textbook / Ed. A. N. Markova. – M.: UNITI, 1995. – 224 p.

6. Culturology: Textbook / Ed. A. A. Radugina. – M.: Center, 1997. – 304 p.

7. Petrukhintsev N. N. XX lectures on the history of world culture: Textbook. – M.: Humanite. ed. center VLADOS, 2001. – 400 p.

8. Encyclopedia of Symbolism: Painting, graphics and sculpture. Literature. Music / Edited by J. Cassou, P. Brunel, F. Claudon and others; Scientific ed. and ed. afterword V. M. Tolmachev; Per. from fr. – M.: Republic, 1999. – 429 p.

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The culture of the 19th century is generally considered bourgeois culture . The development of capitalism was accompanied by the formation of a powerful labor movement, the emergence of the world's first labor party (England). The ideology of the labor movement became Marxism , which had a huge impact on the special political life of Europe and the whole world. In 1871, the workers of Paris established their power for several months - the Paris Commune. Under the leadership of K. Marx and F. Engels, it is created 1st International- International Workers' Association. After its dissolution, social democratic parties who were guided by the ideas of Marxism. Marxism occupies a leading place in the social consciousness of the 20th century.

In the 19th century, a new concept of cultural development emerged - "Elite concept" , according to which the producer and consumer of culture is the privileged class of society - the elite. The concept of elite culture was substantiated by Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. Elite- this is the best, selected, chosen: what is in every social class, social group. The elite represents the most capable part of society for spiritual activity, gifted with high creative inclinations. It is the elite, according to these philosophers, that ensures social progress. Consequently, culture should be oriented not towards the demands of the “masses”, “crowd”, but towards satisfying the demands and needs of this layer of society - people capable of aesthetic contemplation and artistic and creative activity. (Schopenhauer’s work “the world as will and representation” and F. Nietzsche “Human, all too human” and “Thus spoke Zarathustra”).

XIX century - the century of final approval capitalist form of management , a century of intensive development of industrial production, such branches as metallurgy, mechanical engineering, energy, etc. This is also a century of complete demand for science, which rises to unprecedented heights. The needs of industry dictate the formation of a system of school and vocational education in Europe. The number of students at universities is growing. England becomes a country of universal literacy. Here are just some of the scientific achievements of this time:

Charles Darwin's substantiation of the main factors in the process of evolution of the organic world from ape to man;

The creation of the doctrine of the electric field by physicist Michael Faraday;

Development by microbiologist Louis Pasteur of a method of prevention against anthrax;

Botanist Robert Brown's description of the nucleus of a plant cell and the discovery of the random movement of tiny particles (Brownian motion).

The practice of cultural life of the 19th century included holding scientific conferences, symposiums, world exhibitions, etc. Expanding technical equipment for artistic culture; At the end of the 19th century, film art appeared, design (artistic construction) emerged as a consequence of the rapid development of technology, the massization of production and the expansion of the boundaries of aesthetic activity. Experiments are being conducted to combine music and color. (A. Scriabin, M. Ciurlionis).

In the artistic culture of the 19th century there is no single dominant. Various pan-European styles and trends are being formed and functioning.

Romanticism (first third of the 19th century) represents a broad ideological and artistic movement in the spiritual life of European and American society. Originating in Germany (Schiller, Goethe, the Schlegel brothers), romanticism expanded throughout the world:

In poetry, its representatives were D. Byron, V. Hugo, V. Zhukovsky;

In romantic philosophy and aesthetics - F. Schelling, S. Kierkegaard;

In music - F. Chopin, G. Berlioz, F. Schubert;

In painting - E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, D. Constable, O. Kiprensky;

In fiction - W. Scott, A. Dumas, E. Hoffmann, F. Cooper.

Romanticism was based on a creative method that proclaimed as its main principle absolute and unlimited freedom of the individual. Artists committed to this trend depicted dramatically insoluble contradictions between base reality and high ideals. Hence the departure of the romantic into the world of illusions, into fantasy lands, etc. The main thing in romanticism is not a display of individualism, but a heroic-pathetic glorification of loneliness.

The works of artists (novel) are filled feelings of delight and despair, a sense of the eternal mystery of the world, the incomprehensibility of its complete knowledge. As a rule, the artist creates his own world in a work of art, more beautiful than real life. Romanticism was the reaction of the progressive people of Europe to the collapse of the ideals of the Great French Revolution. Romanticism manifested itself most forcefully in the artistic poetry of Germany, France, and England.

It is also reflected in music. This is the musical creativity of Chopin, Berlioz, Schubert, Liszt.

Realism 19th century is a creative process and method characteristic of the artistic culture of European countries, according to which the task of art is a truthful depiction of life. In the works of Lessing and Diderot back in the 18th century, the idea of ​​realistic “free imitation” of nature was developed. 19th century realism was called critical realism . It has the following features:

Deep comprehension of life;

Wide coverage of reality;

Artistic understanding of the contradictions of life.

Human character is interpreted in realistic works as a contradictory and developing unity. It may change depending on life circumstances. Realist writers (N. Gogol, F. Stendhal, O. Balzac, A. Pushkin, F. Dostoevsky, A. Chekhov, L. Tolstoy, etc.) are characterized by a keen interest in the social origin of reality.

In the last third of the 19th century, Western European and American culture developed naturalism - an artistic method according to which the nature of art was explained through ideas borrowed from natural science. The naturalist artist strives for external verisimilitude of details, depiction of individual phenomena, as a result of which the influence of the social factor is clearly downplayed. The artist gives “Pieces of Life,” considering such a detailed description to be a condition of truthfulness in art. (E. Zola, G. de Maupassant, G. Hauptmann, D. Mamin-Sibiryak).

In the 60-70s of the 19th century, an artistic movement arose in France, called impressionism . Impressionism was most clearly embodied in the fine arts. The stylistic features of impressionism are:

Refusal of isolation and stability of the image of objects;

Fixation of instantaneous, seemingly random situations, fragmentation;

Unexpected angles of figures and objects.

In painting, impressionism manifested itself most clearly in the works of O. Renoir, E. Degas, E. Manet, C. Monet, C. Pissaro. These artists sought to convey the beauty of fleeting states of nature, the mobility and variability of human life. They painted landscape works outdoors (en plein air) to convey the feeling of sparkling sunlight. This gave rise to a new painting technique, which was especially evident in the color scheme of the canvases: local color, a subtle sense of the color scheme, its dependence on lighting and the state of the air.

Nature was understood by the Impressionists as an objective reality that could be trusted. In their understanding, an artist is a mediator between people and nature, called upon to reveal to people the beauty of this world, their impression of it.

§ 50. Development of Western European culture

A revolution in the minds.

Revolutions of the late XVIII-XIX centuries. prepared not only by changes in the life of society, but also by changes in the minds of people, in their worldview - the perception of the world around them. There was a growing belief that God does not directly influence the individual and his successes or failures in life. It all depends on effort, intelligence, work and perseverance. Moreover, it is unfair that a person’s position and the conditions of his life are predetermined by birth. All these ideas served as the moral basis for revolutions.

Literature.

At the end of the 18th century. and the beginning of the 19th century. In European art, the ideas of romanticism played a large role. The Romantics valued inspiration, spontaneity of feelings, and opposed the rules established by reason. Victor Hugo’s famous novel “Notre Dame de Paris” became a kind of manifesto of the French romantics.

In the 20s XIX century critical realism is born. Writers and artists of the realistic direction show interest in the multifaceted reproduction of reality, in broad generalizations.

The reflection of the economic, political, and moral contradictions of their time in artistic images is the merit of the writers of critical realism. The great realist writers, the Frenchman Honore de Balzac and the Englishman Charles Dickens, comprehensively revealed the life of society in their novels.

Balzac imagined society as a system of violence against the natural passions of man, that is, as a continuous drama. The writer studied in depth the causes and consequences, the laws of social existence, and his attention was focused not on the disasters themselves, but on the conditions that caused them. Dickens considered it his duty to “show the harsh truth” of life in order to eliminate the evil that exists in it. Exposing the vices in the life of England, he showed the spiritual qualities of ordinary people who withstood difficult life trials.

The German poet Heinrich Heine, an “enthusiast of freedom,” began his creative career as a romantic. However, he addressed social issues and widely used folk motifs. The pinnacle of Heine's work is his political poem "Germany, a Winter's Tale." The poet laughed at those who tried to calm the people with tales about the afterlife. Heine wanted to “turn the earth into heaven and make the earth a paradise.”

An important phenomenon in literature and art of the 19th century. there was naturalism. Naturalists believed that facts are more valuable than the finest fiction and a writer should record real life events. The most prominent representative of naturalism was Emile Zola. In 1868, he began work on the 20-volume series of novels, Rougon-Macquart, which he completed a quarter of a century later.

Naturalism also influenced critical realism. The French writer Guy de Maupassant became famous thanks to his amazing skill as a short story writer, with his novels “Life”, “Dear Friend”, “Pierre and Jean” and others. Lnatole France is a master of philosophical and satirical stories (“The Judgments of Monsieur Jerome Coignard”, “Under the Wayside Elm” and etc.).

At the end of the 19th century. New styles and trends appear in literature, fine arts, architecture, theater, and music. There is a revaluation of values. Changes in the life of society, technological progress - all this required comprehension, a new look. The art of realism and those that appeared at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries approached this task differently. movements united under the name decadence (from the French decadence - decline).

Symbolism - one of the most significant phenomena in the literature of decadence - was formed in France. The Symbolists called themselves singers of “decline, decline, death,” hopelessness and disappointment. They abandoned the image of reality, preferring the “inner essence” to the external image, appearance. Symbolism is characterized by significant meaning, mystical allusions, images devoid of concreteness, and an orientation towards feelings. The most talented symbolist poets in France were Paul Verlaine and Arthur Rimbaud. In England, symbolists rallied around the Yellow Book magazine, with which Oscar Wilde, the most significant representative of English symbolism, was associated. He has written fairy tales, satirical plays, and the intellectual novel “The Picture of Dorian Gray.” The Belgian playwright Maurice Maeterlinck contributed to the development of the traditions of symbolism in the theater (the fairy tale “The Blue Bird”).

The English writer Herbert Wells, the creator of science fiction, wrote about the problems that technological progress can lead to, touched upon the topic of the responsibility of a scientist, and pointed out the need to correlate progress and moral standards.

Art.

In the first half of the 19th century. The art of Western Europe largely followed the path of imitation of the great masters of the past. In France, the main representative of painting of this time was Jacques Louis David. Among his students, Jacques Auguste Ingres stood out, who had to endure a stubborn struggle with the artists of the romantic movement. The first artist to embark on the path of romanticism was Eugene Delacroix.

Realistic traditions of the mid-19th century. associated with the name of Gustave Courbet, many of whose paintings are devoted to social themes. Political events were reflected in numerous etchings and lithographs by Honore Daumier, imbued with sympathy for the common people of Paris. Jean Millet depicted peasants in the lap of nature.

In England in the late 40s. XIX century Three young artists - Gian Everett Millais, Dante Gabriel Rosseti and William Holman Hunt - formed an alliance to jointly fight against convention and imitation in modern painting. They called themselves Pre-Raphaelites because they opposed the hobby of the 16th century masters. naive and deep realism of artists of pre-Raphaelian times.

A striking event in the fine arts of the late 19th century. was the emergence of impressionism. Its emergence is connected with the work of the Frenchman Edouard Manet, around whom a circle of young artists formed. Impressionists are characterized by the desire to reflect the fleeting, changeable, random; convey light and air through painting.

Music.

Romanticism of the early 19th century. showed himself widely in music. Romantic elements were closely intertwined with realistic ones. This interweaving is characteristic of the operatic work of Giuseppe Verdi. A romantic touch is also felt in an outstanding example of realistic opera - “Carmen” by Georges Bizet.

Franz Schubert sought to embody in music a unique moment, a deep intimate experience - everything that is connected with the range of human feelings. Robert Schumann created agitated, rebellious music, which reflected his sensitive reaction to life's impressions. The music of Fryderyk Chopin is permeated with folk rhythms and intonations, ancient legends, and poetry.

In the music of the 70s - 80s. XIX century Opera played an important role. The last works of Richard Wagner, who created the genre of musical drama, date back to this period. Wagner's influence extended even to composers who did not share his views on music.

Major scientific discoveries.

Scientific discoveries changed the understanding of the world around us and influenced people's lives.

In the 20s XIX century The largest discoveries in the field of electricity were made by Andre Ampère, thermoelectric phenomena were discovered in 1834 by Jean Peltier, and the electrical conductivity of substances was studied by Antoine César Becquerel.

The development of chemical science was marked by a number of fundamental discoveries. In 1811 Bernard Courtou discovered iodine. In 1826, Antoine Jerome Balard discovered bromine. In 1802, independently of each other, the English physicist John Dalton and the French physicist and chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac established the laws of thermal expansion of gases.

James Joule's experiments provided an experimental substantiation of the law of conservation of energy. Joule and James Maxwell laid the foundations of the molecular kinetic theory of thermal phenomena. The work of Joule and Joseph John Thomson on cooling gases as they expanded laid the foundation for low-temperature physics. Thomas Young revived the wave theory of light. In 1800, William Herschel discovered infrared radiation.

Organic chemistry developed rapidly, in which Justus Liebig played a special role. He divided all organic compounds into proteins, fats and carbohydrates, and in 1831, simultaneously with the French chemist E. Soudeiran, he obtained chloroform. Liebig developed the theory of fermentation and putrefaction. In 1801, the German physicist Johann Ritter and his English colleague William Wolaston proved the existence of ultraviolet rays. The reformer of technical optics was Joseph Fraunhofer, who described the lines of the solar spectrum in 1814. In 1821, Thomas Seebeck discovered thermoelectricity. In 1826, the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm formulated the fundamental law of the electrical circuit, named after him. and Wilhelm Weber developed an absolute system of electromagnetic units. In 1 Franz Neumann created the theory of electromagnetic induction.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. A genuine revolution took place in physics, changing ideas about time, space, motion, and the structure of matter.

The English physicist J. Maxwell developed the general theory of electrodynamics. Subsequently, Maxwell's positions were confirmed by the works of physicists around the world (the discovery of electromagnetic waves by Heinrich Hertz, X-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen, etc.).

The most important phenomenon in science was the discovery of the first elementary particle - the electron (Englishman George Paget Thomson). Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz completed the creation of his electronic theory of matter. Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity, which was actively studied by Marie Sklodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie. The beginning of the creation of the physics of the atomic nucleus was laid. English physicist Ernest Rutherford discovered alpha, beta and gamma rays released during the decay of radioactive elements.

Important discoveries were made in the field of theoretical chemistry. In 1 Russian scientist developed the Periodic Table chemical elements, based on their "atomic weight and chemical similarity." Mendeleev predicted the properties of a number of still undiscovered elements.

In 1856, aniline dye was synthesized. A whole industry for the production of paints arose.

A revolution in natural science was caused by the book of the Englishman Charles Darwin “The Origin of Species”. In it, he argued that all living nature was formed gradually, through long evolution.

At the beginning of the 20th century. American biologist Thomas Morgan studied the patterns of inheritance of traits discovered in the 60s. XIX century Czech scientist Gregor Mendel, but did not gain fame at that time. At the very end of the 19th century. William Betson coined the term "genetics". In 1 Dutch scientist Hugo De Vries developed the theory of mutations (sudden changes in the characteristics of properties in animals and plants with the subsequent transmission of these changes by inheritance).

In the 80s XIX century French chemist Louis Pasteur developed vaccinations against chicken cholera, anthrax and rabies. At the same time, he studied the causative agents of tuberculosis and cholera. Diphtheria and plague bacteria were discovered.

Automobiles and aeronautics.

The first self-propelled machines were steam-powered machines. German engineer Karl Benz built and tested the first car with an internal combustion engine in 1885. Benz's compatriot Gottlieb Daimler developed his own gasoline engine.

At the end of the 19th century. humanity's long-standing dream of controlled aircraft has come true. The first thing to do was to construct controllable airships. In 1900, Ferdinand Zepellin's airship, which had a rigid frame structure, made its first flight in Germany.

However, the future lay in heavier-than-air vehicles - airplanes (airplanes). The first experiments in constructing aircraft with steam engines were carried out in Russia, by Clement Ader in France, and Hiram Maxim in the USA. The American brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright were the first to use a gasoline engine in aircraft construction in 1903.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. What trends existed in Western European literature of the 19th century?

2. Describe the work of the largest painters and composers of the 19th century.

3. What major scientific discoveries were made in the 19th century?

4. Make a table of artistic styles and movements of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, indicating the names of cultural figures who worked within these styles. Why is it impossible for some cultural figures to find an unambiguous place in such a table?