Pectoral Orthodox cross 18-19 centuries. Antique crosses (encolpions, vests and other crosses)

Despite the abundance of ancient crosses, both in the hands of archaeologists and in various collections, the layer of historical science associated with them has been practically not studied. In this review essay we will briefly talk about the types and types of ancient Russian corporal crosses of the 11th-13th centuries.

There is no complete set of types of pre-Mongol body crosses of the 11th-13th centuries. Moreover, even clear principles for classifying the material have not been developed. Meanwhile, there are many publications devoted to this topic. Conventionally, they can be divided into two groups: publications of collections and articles devoted to archaeological finds. An example of a pre-revolutionary publication of corporal crosses, which also included items from the pre-Mongol period, can be the famous two-volume edition of the collection of B.I. and V.N. Khanenko, which was published in Kyiv. Now, after almost a century-long break, a whole series of catalogs of private collections have been published with sections dedicated to crosses of the 11th-13th centuries: we can mention “The Millennium of the Cross” by A.K. Stanyukovich, “Catalog of medieval small sculptures” by A.A. Chudnovets, publication of the collection of the Vologda collector Surov, description of samples of pre-Mongol metal plastic from the Odessa Museum of Numismatics. Despite all the differences in the scientific quality of the descriptions, these publications have one thing in common - the random selection of the material described and the absence of a classification principle. If the second is associated with the scientific lack of development of the topic, then the first only indicates the absence of serious, representative collections that can be provided by their owner for publication. It is also worth mentioning Nechitailo’s work “Catalogue of Old Russian body crosses X-XIII centuries”, in which the author tries, although not quite successfully, to systematize all the types of pre-Mongol pectoral crosses and cruciform pendants known to him. This work suffers from obvious incompleteness and extreme subjectivity of the author, who for some reason classifies cruciform overlays and even buttons as body crosses, and includes a number of fakes in his catalogue. One can hope that a catalog of the collection of corporal crosses of the 11th-13th centuries, currently being prepared for publication, will be a pleasant exception. S.N. Kutasov - the vastness of the collection provides the authors with ample opportunities to construct a typology of pre-Mongol pectoral crosses.

Articles devoted to archaeological finds, and at the same time not being collections of such finds, by their nature cannot provide any complete picture of the types of crosses. At the same time, they create the basis for the correct dating of objects and help to avoid curious situations when objects of the 15th century, and sometimes of the 17th-18th centuries, which are not always even real crosses, are described in catalogs of private collections as pre-Mongol crosses (an example of this is famous Vologda publication).

And, nevertheless, despite the existing problems, we can at least in general terms characterize the entire abundance of currently known pre-Mongol crosses, highlighting several large groups of objects.

The smallest group includes corporal crosses with images. If on the encolpions and body icons of the 11th-13th centuries the range of images is quite extensive - we find images of Jesus, the Mother of God, archangels, saints, and sometimes there are multi-figure scenes - then on the body icons we see only the image of the Crucifixion, sometimes with those ahead. Perhaps the only exception is a group of double-sided crosses depicting saints in medallions. There is also a small group of crosses - transfusions from encolpions. At the moment, several dozen different types of pre-Mongol crosses with the image of the crucifixion have been published. (Fig. 1) With the exception of a few main ones, these types are represented by a fairly small number of known specimens.

The rarity of “plot” body crosses in Rus' in pre-Mongol times is a matter that requires clarification. On the territory of Byzantium, from the Black Sea region to the Middle East, crosses with images - most often the Crucifixion or Our Lady Oranta - are found no less often than ornamental crosses, but in Rus' during this period we see a completely different ratio of occurrence. Body crosses with the image of the Mother of God, as far as we know, are quite rare in Rus'. (Fig. 2) In this case, it is necessary to take into account the popularity of body icons and encolpions depicting the Mother of God and saints, as well as the fact that among the types of crosses of the late 14th century. - beginning of the 17th century crosses with figured images predominate.

Most pre-Mongol body crosses are decorated with ornaments. Among the non-ornamental, the simplest from a technical and artistic point of view, only small lead crosses dating from the beginning of the 11th century can be classified. Classifying ornamental crosses is not an easy task. The types with “Scandinavian” and “Byzantine” patterns stand out most naturally from the bulk. Based on comparison with northern material, no more than a few dozen “Scandinavian types” can be identified, which, however, were quite widespread. (Fig.3) The situation with the “Byzantine” ornament is more complex. On many crosses originating from Byzantine territory, one can see an ornament consisting of circles pressed into the surface. (Fig.4)

There are various explanations for this pattern, the most famous of which boil down to the fact that we have either a schematic depiction of the five wounds of Christ, which then turned into a decorative element, or it is a protective symbolism that protects its wearer from the “evil eye.” On Russian crosses, with the exception of one, but quite numerous group, such an ornament is rare, but at the same time, it almost always decorates the surface of very popular Slavic amulets depicting a “lynx”, as well as hatchet amulets, and is found on shields of a large group of rings, the influence on the type of which from Byzantine objects of personal piety seems very doubtful. So this ornament can be called “Byzantine” very conditionally, although from the formal side the parallels between the group of Old Russian and Byzantine crosses seem obvious.

The bulk of ornamental decorations, almost more than 90 percent, are of original Russian origin. But before characterizing them, it is necessary to turn our gaze to the very shape of the crosses. The morphology of ancient Russian body crosses is striking in its diversity. Byzantium did not know such diversity of forms, and, as far as we can judge, neither did medieval Europe. The phenomenon of this diversity requires a historical explanation. But before talking about this, it is necessary to at least briefly describe the most characteristic forms of the “branches” of pre-Mongol corporal crosses. The most natural thing would be to expect the dominance of the straight-ended form of “branches”, as we find in Byzantium. However, this is not the case - the straight-pointed form is relatively rare compared to other branch forms. Crosses of the “Maltese type”, with “branches” widening towards the tip, which were quite popular in Byzantium, only a few types are known in Rus', and even then quite rarely encountered. The main mass consists of crosses, the branches of which end in a “crine-shaped” ending, that is, similar to a lily flower. It would be incorrect to say that this form of the “branch” of the cross is a purely Russian specificity. This form is also found in Byzantium, but in very small proportion to the equal-pointed crosses, and mainly in the Balkans. (Fig.5)

Strictly speaking, it cannot be argued that the “crine-shaped” type of “branches” dominates on body crosses of the 11th-13th centuries in its pure form. The “ideal” crinoid type covers perhaps no more than a quarter of all types of vests of this era. However, the fundamental influence of the “crine-shaped” shape on the morphology of the pre-Mongol cross vest seems obvious to me. In addition to the “ideal” crinoform, we find the following forms of completion of the “branches”: three points arranged in a triangle, a triangle, a circle with three points on the outside, a bead with three points or one, and finally, just a bead or a circle. At first glance, the rounded end of the “branch” of the cross can hardly be reduced to a crinoid, however, if you build a typological series, a morphological transformation can easily be seen, turning the crinoid into a circle or a bead.

Thus, revealing the dominance of the crescent type of “branches” of the cross, we can assume that the nature of the decoration of the cross, which is inseparable from its shape, will be determined precisely by this shape. This, apparently, explains the originality of the decoration of ancient Russian corporal crosses.

A special and very numerous group consists of the so-called cross-shaped pendants. Their semantics is not entirely clear - they equally contain in their form elements of both a Christian cross and a pagan amulet. The difficulty in classifying them as Christian objects also lies in the fact that the motif of the cross is not alien to paganism. When we see ovals intertwined in a cruciform manner, four circles connected in a cruciform manner, a rhombus with balls at the end, or a curved pendant resembling a cross in shape, we cannot say with certainty whether such a composition is reflected Christian influence, or is it purely pagan symbolism. Based on archaeological finds, we can only assert that these objects existed in the same environment as the cross vests, which gives some grounds for considering them in the context of objects of personal piety, albeit with some reservations. (Fig.6)

The main argument for dividing cruciform pendants into “Christian” and “pagan” groups (both designations are conditional) can be the presence or absence of numerous similar objects originating from Byzantine territory. In the case of “cross-included” pendants, we must recognize them to a greater extent as objects of Christian culture than pagan, since there are numerous analogues originating from all over Byzantine territory, and in Kherson this type, as far as can be judged, was one of the most common types of crosses -telnikov. At the same time, one cannot help but notice that on pendants of this type, almost all the crosses included in the circle have curved, or close to curved, endings. Thus, even in relation to this type, which has many analogies to the media of Byzantine material, we cannot talk about the complete borrowing of the form from Byzantium.

The most interesting example of pagan-Christian synthesis can be those that include the cross. Knowing the many pre-Christian types of lunars, one can without a doubt assert that the cross that arose on some types of lunars (however, quite rare) is a purely Christian element, and is a consequence of the “dual faith” that has arisen - that is, the organic combination of pagan and Christian ideas within the framework of a single model peace. It is well known that “dual faith” in Rus', within the framework of folk culture, persisted until very late times, and the existence of , which should be included both in the arches of pre-Mongol corporal crosses and pagan amulets, is its clearest manifestation. (Fig.7)

Read more about lunnitsa and others Slavic amulets can be read in the article "".

In parallel with the semantic typology of crosses and vests that I outlined, several typological groups can be distinguished, based on the material and technique of making crosses. A serious historian striving for “first-level” items cannot help but have a question: do golden cross-vests exist? Such objects, of course, existed, but, apparently, only in princely use. Only a few gold crosses originating from the territory of Rus' are known. At the same time, on the territory of Byzantium such objects are not absolutely rare. Body crosses made of sheet gold with semiprecious stones are found both on the Western antique market and in archaeological reports, however, full-weight gold crosses are quite rare, and in the West, as well as in Russia, they are almost impossible to find on the antique market.

Silver body crosses of the 11th-13th centuries represent a fairly small group of objects. The bulk of them are made up of small crosses of simple shapes, with “branches” ending in beads, and fairly large crosses with “Scandinavian” ornaments. Silver crosses of unusual shapes are rare. Funerary crosses made of sheet silver appear in archaeological publications, but in practice they are extremely rare.

A separate group consists of stone body crosses. They are distinguished by their simplicity of shape and the absence of carvings. Only in some cases are they framed in silver. They are mainly made of slate, less often - of marble. Marble crosses are of Byzantine origin. Despite the fact that they are not objectively rare - they are often found during excavations on Byzantine territory - in reality there are not so many of them, which can be explained simply: they cannot be found with a metal detector, and are only a random find.

The group of enamel crosses is very numerous. The standard “Kiev” type of enamel cross is one of the most common types of pre-Mongol crosses. The variety of subtypes within the general type of the simplest enamel cross is quite large. In addition to the most basic division into two subtypes according to the number of balls that end the “branch”, they differ in the colors of the enamel, as well as the decor of the reverse side: if for the most part these crosses are double-sided, then one-sided crosses with a smooth reverse side can be classified as a rarer type , with an engraved cross on the reverse side or with an inscription, most often unreadable due to the quality of the casting.

In addition to the type of enamel cross with curved ends of the “branches,” there is a rarer “straight-ended” type, and a type with a rounded end of the branches. Adjacent to them is a fairly large group of crosses, or cross-shaped pendants of very unusual shapes, which have no analogues either among Byzantine or among Russian objects. As an analogy, only a cross-shaped ornament can be cited on a fairly large group of large pre-Mongol buttons, also decorated with enamel. (Fig.8)

A separate, rather small group consists of crosses decorated with niello. At the moment, we know of no more than a dozen types of crosses with niello, one of which is relatively common, the rest are quite rare. (Fig.9)

Moving on to the “technical” side of the description of the material that interests us, we cannot ignore two questions that concern any interested person, namely: the degree of rarity of the objects to which he turns his attention, and the problem of the authenticity of these objects. Often, when communicating with various kinds of specialists, one hears the statement that this or that pre-Mongol cross is “unique.” Meanwhile, an experienced researcher knows that numerous crosses marked in publications with the highest mark of rarity are often found in dozens of copies. The point here, of course, is not the incompetence of the compilers of such rarity tables, but the very nature of the product we are considering. With rare exceptions, all body crosses were made using the casting method, which implies the presence of many dozens and sometimes hundreds of completely identical objects. We know of many cases of re-casting, in which the quality of the product, of course, may deteriorate somewhat, but the type itself, and even its small details, are preserved. As far as one can judge, the crosses, at least in pre-Mongol times, were not melted down, so all the specimens that fell into the ground are awaiting their time of discovery. In other words, a truly unique cast cross is an almost incredible phenomenon. The practical rarity can be explained simply: unlike Byzantium, where there were large centers of mass casting, from which crosses were distributed throughout the empire, in Rus' casting workshops were dispersed throughout the entire territory of the state. The products of these local workshops for the most part did not leave the boundaries of their initially small region of existence, and in the event that the place of production of any unusual type of cross has not yet been found, it can be considered very rare, but as soon as the center of production is discovered, and dozens of identical or similar objects are drunk. In other words, the rarity of copper cross-vests is always relative. Silver crosses are objectively quite rare, but often, due to their lack of appearance, small size and lack of interesting decor, they do not attract serious attention from interested parties. To what has been said, we can only add that the greatest, although again relatively rare, can be crosses of an unusual shape, having an unusual ornamental design, and even more so – small varieties.

No matter how brief this sketch of a typological description of the telnik crosses of the pre-Mongol era is, it poses a number of questions to the thoughtful reader that are fundamental to understanding not only this narrow topic, but also the history of the Christianization of Rus' as a whole. One cannot help but be struck by the fact of the iconographic and typological isolation of Old Russian crosses and vests from Byzantine models. The Byzantine tradition, having formed the Russian type of encolpion cross, did not actually affect the formation of types of cross-vests. Previously, when the only source for acquiring metal-plastic objects was archaeological excavations, there was a widespread belief that encolpions were worn only by members of the elite. Now, thanks to the massive finds of encolpions in villages, the incorrectness of this statement has become clear. We are not talking about dividing the types of crosses - telniks and encolpions - according to the “class principle”, but only about identifying two fundamentally different types of worn crosses: one type is completely focused on Byzantine samples, on imported specimens from the “cultural metropolis” (these are encolpion crosses ), the other type - that is, small cross vests - is almost completely focused on local, Slavic culture.

Slavic cultural orientation is, first of all, an orientation towards paganism. However, this in no way means a confrontation between paganism and Christianity, rather the opposite: the cross as a symbol of belonging to the Christian community, as an object of personal piety, turned out to be endowed with amulet semantics in the popular consciousness. The cross-vest received a completely different meaning than the one it had in Byzantium - along with Slavic lunars, ridge pendants, amulets-spoons, keys, hatchets, it turned into an instrument of interaction between a person - his master - and the forces of the outside world. Apparently, the body cross had protective functions - it is no coincidence that the ornamental design of pre-Mongol crosses, which has no correspondence among Byzantine material, finds many parallels in the design of the shields of the rings, which undoubtedly had a protective meaning.

“Dual faith” as one of the fundamental facts of Russian culture has not yet been studied well enough due to the scarcity of sources, and here ancient Russian metal-plastics can be one of the most interesting and richest sources of new knowledge. A person who turns his gaze to it comes into contact with history itself in its still untouched, still unknown guise, before him is a subject of research, rich and interesting, and what if not the desire for the unknown is the force that moves the heart and awakens the passion of an enthusiastic seeker truth?!

An artistic reconstruction of a woman’s costume, illustrating the way of wearing crosses and cross pendants, can be seen in the article.

Examples of Russian pectoral crosses of a later period can be found in the article "" and the article "".

In the second half of the 18th century, a new large center of Old Believer culture emerged in the very center of Russia. This is Guslitsy - a locality near Moscow in the south-eastern part of Bogorodsky district with adjacent areas of the Ryazan and Vladimir provinces, currently the territory of part of the modern Orekhovo-Zuevsky and Yegoryevsky districts of the Moscow region. This area received its name from the name of the river and the ancient volost village of Guslitsa, which was mentioned already in the 14th century in the spiritual charter of the Moscow prince Ivan Kalita. Among the Old Believers-priests who settled on the territory of the Guslitsky region, a unique artistic culture developed. In its formation, a significant role was played by the fact that in the middle of the 19th century Guslitsy became one of the spiritual centers of the Belokrinitsky consent in Russia. Here books were copied and decorated with the famous “Guslitsky” painting, copper casting workshops worked, producing crosses, icons, folding panels, wall sheets with popular prints of various contents were made, and icons were painted.

Guslitsky casting was intended for sale among the poorest peasant population of the region and was distinguished by its simplicity and some roughness, behind which archaic artistic forms were hidden. Among Guslitsky castings, a large place is occupied by various icon crosses of various shapes and sizes. A characteristic feature of Guslitsky crosses were six-winged cherubs placed on the sides of the middle crossbar of the cross.

Small icon crosses. Guslitsy. XVIII–XIX centuries

The number of “six-krills” could be quite large. In this case, they were placed on pins along the upper contour of the cross, forming an arc or broken line. A very beautiful rare icon cross, in which the six-crests are arranged in two rows; The influence of the Baroque could not be avoided here either.

Icon crosses with “six-crests”. XVIII–XIX centuries			A flourishing 18th century icon cross. and its prototype

A curious development of the small icon-case (pectoral?) cross is the so-called “flourished” or “fire-bearing” cross, which probably arose as an attempt to increase the form of a pectoral cross of the corresponding type, characteristic of the turn of the 17th – 18th centuries, to icon-case sizes.

Pomeranian icon cross with upcoming and selected holidays. XVIII–XIX centuries

The flourishing of artistic casting in the Old Believers, among other things, was caused by practical necessity. In conditions when chapels were underground and, in order to avoid arrest, it was necessary to quickly hide church utensils, the usual wooden icons were too bulky and quickly wore out from the inevitable blows and falls. The Old Believers needed durable and compact icons, convenient for transportation and storage.

This problem was not new, inherent only to the Old Believers. Long before the schism, the concept of a travel icon appeared in Russian church culture, that is, an icon that could be taken with you on the road. The breadth of the Russian soul did not allow one to make do with one pectoral cross, no matter how many-figured it was. I wanted to have a familiar iconostasis with me, no matter whether it was church or home. Solving this problem, Russian masters moved in two directions: creating multi-leaf folding icons or so-called “multi-part” icons.

Pomeranian craftsmen, guided by the style of Vyg, cast wonderful square crosses, where, along with upcoming holidays, there were wings of the most common folding pattern in the North with images of the Holy Trinity and Our Lady of the Sign.

Guslitsky craftsmen were the first to solder small icons with images of holidays, archangels, apostles and some other saints to crosses. The crosses turned into complex compositions, replacing the entire iconostasis. Similar crosses subsequently began to be cast in other Old Believer centers of Russia, in particular in the Southern Urals. There was great scope for creative imagination. A variety of icons were connected to crosses, and the number of “six wings” on the top was constantly increasing. The largest composition, which among collectors is called the “large patriarchal crucifix” or simply “shovel”, includes all the twelve holidays.

Based on the nature of the casting of such a complex composition, one can confidently date the product. In the most ancient of them, parts were cast separately and then soldered together. Later ones are overcasts, on which traces of soldering of the prototype icon are still visible. The latest ones were cast using a solid matrix.

Guslitsky products can be found in every corner of Russia where the Old Believers lived. They are the ones most often found in grandmothers' chests. These products were made and sold by cartload. However, in the second half of the 19th century, Moscow casting competed with it, which differed favorably from Guslitsky in its careful attention to detail and the use of high-quality multi-color enamels. Icon crosses were the most common type of cast icons here too. By the middle of the 19th century, the most common type of such cross had become established: straight, without upcoming or festive marks. Such crosses were cast and shimmered throughout Russia even in the first post-revolutionary decades. Their sizes varied from 19 to 32 cm in height.

At first glance, these later crosses seem almost identical, differing only in size. However, this first impression is not correct; the crosses differ in their finials, bases, and small decorative details, which had not only an aesthetic, but also a technological purpose, holding the enamel on the product.

Icon crosses were cast in huge batches. Government documents from Nicholas's time note their widespread distribution among followers of various Old Believer accords. So in 1868, the report of I. Sinitsin, one of the officials involved in the fight against the spread of the schism, said: “the schismatics... have eight-pointed crosses from three inches to half an arshin and longer, almost all without titles, nailed over the gates of houses and placed in the huts with the signature replacing it “THE KING OF THE WORD IS HS SNI BZHII”... with the image of the Savior not made by hands at the top instead of the image of the Lord of Hosts with the sun and moon on the edges of a large diameter..."

If the tops of Pomeranian crosses with the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands were almost identical, then the corresponding parts of other crosses were varied. The inscription “Where is the Almighty” was replaced by the inscription “Where is the Almighty.”

Tops of icon crosses of the 19th century.
The foot of the icon crosses. Second half of the 19th century.

At the bottom of the icon crosses there was often an image of a certain bush. The symbolism of this image is quite complex. First of all, this is a “three-component” tree that comes from apocryphal literature, growing from the grave of Adam, which provides material for the Cross of the Lord. However, there are crosses where, instead of a bush, a fruit similar to an apple is depicted. This is probably a symbol of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, the fruit of which, firmly associated in folk mythology with an apple, became the cause of Adam’s fall. In this case, the symbolism of the image becomes deeper: the Cross of Christ - the true Tree of Life - rises above the tree of sin and defeats the consequences of the Fall, the main one of which is death.
Perhaps the most amazing and rare image at the foot of the cross is a simple, ingenuous flower surrounded by multi-colored enamels. This is probably what a plant from the Garden of Eden should have looked like, according to the artist who created the matrix for casting.

Of course, the most striking icon cross of the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries is the largest of them, measuring 420*210 mm. It is surrounded along the entire contour by a multi-enamel frame with a fancy floral design. Apparently, this was the last model developed by Old Believers foundries.

In an effort to solve the problem of the split once and for all, the Russian government issued decrees that were obviously impossible to implement. So in 1842, a decree was issued “On the widespread sequestration of all metal crosses and icons, the closure of factories involved in the manufacture of them.”

However, the Minister of the Interior himself in 1858 considered it impossible to begin such “sequestration” without causing a wide wave of popular indignation, which was fraught with the strengthening of the Old Believers. Therefore, instead of confiscating copper-cast crosses and icons, the ministry recommended “to establish the production of crosses and icons in decent form through government measures or at private institutions.” Apparently, this government initiative was not completed. There are very few known and therefore highly valued by collectors castings of crosses from the middle of the 19th century, made using the same copper casting technology, but stylistically very different from Old Believer products of the same time.

A typical example of such crosses, made in a style different from the Old Believer, are two frames of a medium-sized icon cross (height 247 mm) with a pronounced baroque pattern on the back. Five medallions-cartouches contain the text of the luminary canon of the Honorable and Life-Giving Cross: “The Cross is the guardian of the entire Universe...”. On the front side, on the sides of the crucified Savior, there are round medallions with chest-length images of the two coming. In a rarer version, these medallions are replaced by unfolded scrolls with the letters IC XC and bunches of grapes.

THE CROSS IS THE MAIN CHRISTIAN SYMBOL

Images of the cross have been found everywhere since ancient times. The squared cross, a symbol of earth and stability, represents the four cardinal directions or four regions of the world. A cross in a circle means the sun, fire. The cross is the center of the Universe, the cosmic axis, the cosmic Tree that connects Heaven with Earth. The cross expressed the inherent dualism and unity of opposites in nature. The vertical line is heavenly, spiritual, active, masculine. Horizontal - is earthly, rational, passive, feminine. Inextricably linked with the cross is the meaning of the crucifixion as the sacrifice of a savior, god or god-man.

The second meaning of the cross, where it acts as an instrument of shameful execution, prevailed in the first centuries of Christianity and obscured the ancient symbolism of the cross.

In the Christian East, images of the Crucifixion appear no earlier than the 6th century. The most famous is an illustration for the polemical work of the Greek monk Anastasius Sinaite. An eight-pointed cross is depicted here for the first time. The upper crossbar replaces the titlo, the arms are nailed to the middle one, and both legs are nailed to the lower one. Christ is depicted dead, bowing his head. The inscription on the cross is IC XC This miniature later became the prototype of most Byzantine and Russian Crucifixions.

THE CROSS OF EVERY FORM IS THE TRUE CROSS

There are several types of crosses that differ in their purpose. This is a simple monolithic body cross (vest), a breast or pectoral cross, an encolpion or a reliquary cross, consisting of two leaves with a cavity inside, an icon cross and an altar cross.

Body cross . The most widespread from ancient times to the present day is the custom of secretly wearing a cross under clothing. Such a cross is called a vest in Rus'. It is given to Russian Orthodox Church to every Christian when performing the sacrament of Baptism. Using a cord or chain, they are worn around the neck and worn under clothing on the body. They are mainly made of copper and its alloys and are small in size (2.5-5 cm).

Pectoral crosses . When wearing a cross over clothing, the symbolism of Christian service becomes the main thing. In this case, a person shows that all his activities in the world are carried out under the banner of the cross and are a service to Christ. Therefore, breast crosses, worn over clothing, were in Rus' mainly an accessory of the episcopal rank, as well as obligatory items of princely and royal vestments, and were also used as a reward for clergy. They noted the chosenness of God and the Christian nature of spiritual and temporal power.

Encolpion. Reliquary cross . This type of cross came from Byzantium. It originated from a four-pointed box with an image of a cross on the lid, in which ancient Christians kept particles of holy relics or lists of sacred books. Later it acquired a cruciform shape. IN Ancient Rus' folding reliquary crosses, along with other pectoral crosses worn over clothing, were objects of princely and royal dignity. In addition, encolpions were sometimes worn by simple monastics, as well as pious laypeople, for example, pilgrims.

Kyoto cross . They differ from pectoral crosses in their larger size and do not have an eyelet for a neck cord. They were placed on special shelves (cases) among the holy icons in the red corner, and attached to the doorposts of the home. They were used to crown home iconostases and take them with them on travels, hikes, and trips to create temporary altars.

Altar cross . Are a necessary accessory Christian temple. They are located on the altar throne next to the Gospel. Used during church services. They differ from pectoral and icon crosses in their larger sizes - from 30 cm and above.

Priest Mikhail Vorobyov

Pectoral and icon crosses of the 17th – 19th centuries

Leaving his father's house, the young Kursk tradesman Prokhor Moshnin, in the future a great ascetic of the Russian Church, received as a blessing from his mother a small copper cross, cast, most likely, in Guslitsky coppersmiths, which he carried on his chest until his death. Similar crosses in the 18th and 19th centuries were made in various foundries in hundreds of thousands of copies. They were loved by the Old Believers, but just as often they could be found in Russian homes Orthodox people, completely far from a split. Pious peasant women fervently prayed for them, merchants brought them from fairs, they were carefully preserved during the most godless decades of Soviet power, taken out of the chest only to place them next to the coffin. These crosses, simple and exquisite, rubbed smooth and preserving all the details of the relief, darkened with time and sparkling with enamels of different shades, constitute the most extensive layer of Russian church casting, after body crosses.

In order to bring at least some order to this amazing variety, it is necessary, first of all, to pay attention to the sizes and, so to speak, to the preferred functional purpose of the products. Based on these two characteristics, copper-cast crosses, which are larger in size than vests, that is, have a height of more than 8 cm, can be divided into two groups: pectoral and icon crosses. Pectoral crosses, which had an eyelet for a gaitan at the top or on the reverse side, were intended to be worn on the chest, over clothing. Icon cases were placed among icons and were often inserted into special icon cases - stavrotheks. This classification is not absolutely accurate, since the same crosses could be both icon crosses and pectoral crosses, and were often cast either with an eyelet or without it; and the eyelet itself was sometimes intended only to make it more convenient to hang the cross on the wall. Even in our time, among the participants in some procession of the cross, there is sure to be a person on whose chest hangs a specially tied, obviously icon-case cross of considerable weight and size.

The main historical feature of the spread of this artistic style in Russia was that, starting as its own style, mainly in architecture, the Moscow Baroque united with the European one, becoming fully a great artistic style. For a century and a half from the middle of the 17th century until the very end of the 18th century, the Baroque dominated in literature and art, in socio-political thought, theology, poetry, style of thinking, and line of behavior.

The influence of the Baroque on icon painting, as well as church and applied art, including copper casting, is undeniable. The most clearly stylistic features of the Baroque are manifested in the plastic of pectoral crosses, which were the most numerous products of the foundry, as well as the pectoral and icon crosses that appeared at that time. Diversity and variability, which are the main features of the Baroque artistic style, are very clearly manifested in this area of ​​ecclesiastical art. Moreover, baroque elements appear here earlier than other areas of art, almost earlier than architecture. So V.N. Peretz notes: “Apparently, from the end of the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century, a new type of copper-cast products, different from the ancient southern one, was formed in Muscovite Rus', which then, with minor variations, dominated industry until the 19th century. inclusive....The following types of copper-cast products are becoming especially widespread: autumn crosses, often decorated with enamel, pectoral crosses, body crosses, of various shapes, crosses of unknown purpose (cases, gates?), decorated with icons of holidays, sometimes crowned with a chain of cherubs on rods...” .

Pectoral cross of the 17th century.

One of the striking examples of pectoral crosses made in the Moscow Baroque style is a small, 91x58 mm, pectoral cross with four facing ones and a cherub in the upper part. The cross has a keel-shaped finish, characteristic of pectoral crosses of the 16th century; At the ends of the crossbars there are balls characteristic of the Moscow Baroque.

Baroque features are even more clearly manifested in the more common types of pectoral crosses of the late 17th century, which were occasionally replicated in castings of the subsequent 18th century.

Since, starting from the 18th century, copper casting was concentrated mainly in the Old Believer environment, these crosses with pronounced features of the Baroque style did not become widespread. Their elegant, festive appearance introduced dissonance into the strict and harsh art of the zealots of ancient piety. However, the more restrained crosses of the era of the Great Moscow Council were adopted by the Old Believers and remained in circulation for at least another century. These are large, 120x80 mm in size, products with curved ends of the branches. Let us note that this form of the crossbars is typical for ancient Russian vests of the pre-Mongol period.

Pectoral crosses of the 17th–18th centuries.

The first thing that catches the eye of anyone who sees a cross of this type is the two “trinities” located in the upper and lower parts of the cross. Of course, such a composition is a tribute to the Baroque style with its penchant for “symmetrical asymmetry.” If the upper Trinity is beyond doubt - this is a traditional image of the Holy Trinity in Russian art, then the lower one, upon closer examination, turns out to be the “trinity of the wicked,” an image of the three Roman soldiers mentioned in the Gospel, keen on dividing the clothes of the crucified Christ. The truth of this guess is confirmed by the inscription running along the side of the lower blade of the cross; This is the well-known text of the psalm “Dividing My garments for myself and casting lots for My clothing.”

Crosses of this type are very elegant. They were often decorated with multi-colored enamels. There are several versions of this type of cross. On some of them, under the hands of the Savior, there are schematic images of temples. There are crosses, in the lower blade of which two saints are depicted instead of warriors. Most often, this is Nikita Besogon paired with St. Nicholas the Wonderworker (in this case, Saints Tikhon and Mina are placed higher at the foot of the Cross) or two Sergius and Nikon (?) of Radonezh (on crosses of this type, on the middle crossbar above the hands of the Savior there are images of angels).

Pectoral cross of the late 17th century.

The stormy invasion of the Baroque into Russian church art The production of copper-cast icons and crosses was also affected. However, the aesthetics of this great artistic style did not fully correlate with traditional Russian piety. Without denying beauty as such, it was not satisfied with the beauty of the Baroque, which seemed devoid of spiritual depth and genuine religiosity and was reduced, especially in later examples, to pure decorativeness. Experiments in this area created products of amazing sophistication, which, however, did not go into series, were not reproduced in repeated castings, remaining evidence of the artistic search of the master, in which the “sense of global responsiveness” was compensated by rootedness in spiritual tradition.

An example of such experiments is the pectoral cross of the late 17th century with the image of the Entrance to Jerusalem in the upper blade, cherubs moved to the foot and traditional angels in the upper part, more reminiscent in their forms of ancient Cupids.

1. The article is illustrated with images of items from the author’s own collection, kindly provided by Dmitry Anatolyevich Ostapenko, as well as caught in the vast expanses of the Internet.
2. The abundance of such crosses among the archaeological material suggests that most of them are later Old Believer crosses of the 18th – 19th centuries. To designate this form of cross, with a sufficient variety of types, search engines and collectors use the stable name “propellers”.
3. A comprehensive typology of pectoral crosses in the Moscow Baroque style is presented in the article by E.P. Vinokurova “Metal cast cross-vests of the 17th century” in the collection “Culture of Medieval Moscow. XVII century”, M. Nauka, 2000, p. 326.
4. Peretz.V.N. On some grounds for dating Old Russian copper casting. L. 1933. pp. 7-8.
5. In recent years, the name “Kursk” has been established to designate the last cross, since most of the finds come from the Kursk region. However, according to A.N. Rescued, such crosses were cast in one of the monasteries of the Ryazan region.
6. There are several designs of crosses of different types. Most sources date them to the end of the 16th century. However, the obvious Baroque style, as well as some heaviness of the casting, make it possible to date them to the end of the 17th century.

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Which cross is considered canonical? Why is it unacceptable to wear a cross with the image of the crucified Savior and other images?

Every Christian from holy baptism to the hour of death must wear on his chest the sign of his faith in the crucifixion and Resurrection of our Lord and God Jesus Christ. We wear this sign not over our clothes, but on our body, which is why it is called a body sign, and it is called octagonal (eight-pointed) because it is similar to the Cross on which the Lord was crucified on Golgotha.

A collection of pectoral crosses of the 18th and 19th centuries from the settlement area of ​​the Krasnoyarsk Territory indicates the presence of stable preferences in form against the background of a rich variety of individual execution of products by craftsmen, and exceptions only confirm the strict rule.

Unwritten legends keep many nuances. So, after the publication of this article, one Old Believer bishop, and then a reader of the site, pointed out that the word cross, just like the word icon, does not have a diminutive form. In this regard, we also appeal to our visitors with a request to respect the symbols of Orthodoxy and monitor the correctness of their speech!

Male pectoral cross

The pectoral cross, which is always and everywhere with us, serves as a constant reminder of the Resurrection of Christ and that at baptism we promised to serve Him and renounced Satan. Thus, the pectoral cross is able to strengthen our spiritual and physical strength, and protect us from the devil’s evil.

The oldest surviving crosses often take the form of a simple equilateral four-pointed cross. This was customary at a time when Christians venerated Christ, the apostles, and the holy cross symbolically. In ancient times, as you know, Christ was often depicted as a Lamb surrounded by 12 other lambs - the apostles. Also, the Cross of the Lord was depicted symbolically.

The rich imagination of the masters was strictly limited by unwritten concepts about the canonicity of pectoral crosses

Later, in connection with the discovery of the original Honest and Life-Giving Cross of the Lord, St. Queen Helena, the eight-pointed shape of the cross begins to be depicted more and more often. This was also reflected in body crosses. But the four-pointed cross did not disappear: as a rule, an eight-pointed cross was depicted inside a four-pointed cross.

Along with the forms that have become traditional in Rus', in the Old Believer settlements of the Krasnoyarsk Territory one can also find the heritage of the more ancient Byzantine tradition

In order to remind us of what the Cross of Christ means to us, it is often depicted on the symbolic Calvary with a skull (the head of Adam) at the base. Next to him you can usually see the instruments of the Lord’s passion - a spear and a cane.

Letters INCI(Jesus the Nazarene King of the Jews), which are usually depicted on larger crosses, are given in memory of the inscription mockingly nailed above the head of the Savior during the crucifixion.

The explanatory inscription under the titles reads: King of Glory Jesus Christ Son of God" Often the inscription “ NIKA” (Greek word meaning Christ’s victory over death).

Individual letters that may appear on pectoral crosses mean “ TO” – copy, “ T” – cane, “ GG” – Mount Golgotha, “ GA” – head of Adam. “ MLRB” – Place Execution Paradise Was (that is: at the site of the execution of Christ, Paradise was once planted).

We are sure that many people do not even realize how perverted this symbolism is in our usual deck of cards . As it turned out in , four card suits- this is a hidden blasphemy against Christian shrines: cross– this is the Cross of Christ; diamonds- nails; peaks- centurion's copy; worms- This is a sponge with vinegar, which the torturers mockingly gave to Christ instead of water.

The image of the Crucified Savior on body crosses appeared quite recently (at least after the 17th century). Pectoral crosses with the image of the Crucifixion non-canonical , since the image of the Crucifixion turns the pectoral cross into an icon, and the icon is intended for direct perception and prayer.

Wearing an icon hidden from view carries the danger of using it for other purposes, namely as a magical amulet or amulet. The cross is symbol , and the Crucifixion is image . The priest wears a cross with a Crucifix, but he wears it in a visible way: so that everyone sees this image and is inspired to pray, inspired to have a certain attitude towards the priest. The priesthood is an image of Christ. But the pectoral cross that we wear under our clothes is a symbol, and the Crucifixion should not be there.

One of the ancient rules of St. Basil the Great (IV century), which was included in the Nomocanon, reads:

“Anyone who wears any icon as an amulet must be excommunicated from communion for three years.”

As we see, the ancient fathers very strictly monitored the correct attitude towards the icon, towards the image. They stood guard over the purity of Orthodoxy, protecting it in every possible way from paganism. By the 17th century, a custom had developed to place on the back of the pectoral cross a prayer to the Cross (“May God rise again and His enemies be scattered…”), or only the first words.

Women's pectoral cross

In the Old Believers, the external difference between “ female" And " male” crosses. The “female” pectoral cross has a smoother, rounded shape without sharp corners. Around the “female” cross, a “vine” is depicted with a floral ornament, reminiscent of the words of the psalmist: “ Your wife is like a fruitful vine in the countries of your home. ”(Ps. 127: 3).

It is customary to wear a pectoral cross on a long gaitan (braid, woven thread) so that you can, without removing it, take the cross in your hands and make the sign of the cross (this is supposed to be done with the appropriate prayers before going to bed, as well as when performing the cell rule).

Symbolism in everything: even the three crowns above the hole symbolize the Holy Trinity!

If we talk about crosses with the image of the crucifixion more broadly, then a distinctive feature of canonical crosses is the style of depicting the body of Christ on them. Widespread today on New Believer crosses the image of the suffering Jesus is alien to the Orthodox tradition .

Antique medallions with a symbolic image

According to canonical ideas, reflected in icon painting and copper sculpture, the body of the Savior on the Cross was never depicted suffering, sagging on nails, etc., which testifies to His divine nature.

The manner of “humanizing” the suffering of Christ is characteristic of Catholicism and was borrowed much later than the church schism in Rus'. Old Believers consider such crosses worthless . Examples of canonical and modern New Believer casting are given below: the substitution of concepts is noticeable even with the naked eye.

The stability of traditions should also be noted: the collections in the photographs were replenished without the goal of showing only ancient forms, that is, hundreds of types of modern “ Orthodox jewelry ” – an invention of recent decades against the background of almost complete oblivion of the symbolism and meaning of the image of the honorable Cross of the Lord.

Illustrations on the topic

Below are illustrations selected by the editors of the “Old Believer Thought” website and links on the topic.

An example of canonical pectoral crosses from different times:

An example of non-canonical crosses from different times:

Unusual crosses supposedly made by Old Believers in Romania

Photo from the exhibition “Russian Old Believers”, Ryazan

Cross with an unusual back side that you can read about

Modern male cross

Catalog of ancient crosses - online version of the book " Millennium Cross » – http://k1000k.narod.ru

A well-illustrated article on early Christian pectoral crosses with high-quality illustrations in color and additional material on the topic on the website Culturology.Ru – http://www.kulturologia.ru/blogs/150713/18549/

Comprehensive information and photos about cast icon crosses from Novgorod manufacturer of similar products : https://readtiger.com/www.olevs.ru/novgorodskoe_litje/static/kiotnye_mednolitye_kresty_2/