1. The Stoics The Stoics took an unprecedented position regarding the problem of imitation. Since they were the first in antiquity to talk about the rights of the individual subject, we set ourselves the task of formulating that feature of human thinking that would be sharply different from

1. Stoics As for early Hellenism, out of several hundred fragments collected from Arnim, there is only one text that talks about catharsis. This text (II, frg. 598) says that purification occurs when one cosmos burns up and a new one emerges from this destruction

1. Stoics a) The structural terminology we are studying now is also not very significantly represented among the Stoics. True, it also has its own original features. Thus, in connection with the general Stoic doctrine of tension (IAE V 147 – 149) in the early Stoics we read, for example,

1. Stoics a) The fact that the element of the Stoics is, first of all, a universal principle is clear by itself. That absolutely everything emerges from this principle and absolutely everything dissolves in it, and that it permeates absolutely everything and guides all spermatic logoi -

1. Stoics a) It is necessary to state with all determination the complete revolution in ideas about nature, which in antiquity occurred as a result of the activities of the early Stoics. This revolution consisted in the fact that nature now began to be understood not just as

4. Stoics a) With the Stoics we are already introducing ourselves into a completely new period of ancient culture, namely the period of Hellenism. This post-classical period, in contrast to the Hellenic classics, is characterized, as we already well know, by bringing to the fore

2. Stoics Among the Hellenistic thinkers, the Stoics operated with the concept of chaos. But it seems they did not go beyond the classical definition of this concept. Two types of Stoic understanding of chaos can be identified. One thing is quite naturalistic, when he announced,

1. Stoics a) Stoic texts about beauty and beauty were given in our place (IAE V 153 – 157). In contrast to the stricter and colder definitions of beauty in the classical period among the Stoics, we find, first of all, cosmic beauty in the form of a universal living

3. The Stoics The Stoics are important to us because of all the ancient authors, their doctrine of the primacy of the body is carried out most consistently and, from the ancient point of view, most irrefutably. The fact is that, as we have already seen above (IAE V 145 - 148), the Stoics understand the entire universe as

8. Stoics Various versions of the generally fatalistic concept of natural law were developed by the ancient Greek and Roman Stoics. Fate as a controlling and dominant principle (hegem-onikon) is, according to the Stoics, at the same time “the mind of the universe, or the law of all things in

Stoicism, as a specific direction of philosophical thought, has existed since the 3rd century BC. until the 3rd century AD The name of this school comes from the name of the place where these philosophers liked to gather in Athens. In the central square of the city of Agora, where the citizens of Athens gathered for trade, communication and public affairs, there were covered colonnades decorated with porticoes (in Greek portico - standing). They provided shelter from the rain and scorching sun. In one of them, once painted with drawings and since then nicknamed the Motley Portico, philosophers gathered, who were quickly nicknamed the Stoics.

Stoicism is the least Greek of all schools of thought. The history of Stoicism falls into three eras:

1) old Stoa: creates and completes the system; founders - Zeno the Stoic of Kition from Cyprus, Cleanthes, Chrysippus from Sol (III century BC);

2) middle Stoa: Panetius of Rhodes (2nd century BC) introduces Stoicism to Rome, and Posidonius of Apamea (late 2nd - 1st century BC) softens the initial rigorism;

3) late Roman Stoicism: Plutarch, Cicero, Seneca, Epictetus, Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

Stoicism owes much of its vitality and vigor to its long polemics with the New Academy. At the origins of this period of development of the Academy is Arcesilaus (head of the Academy from approximately 268 to 241 BC); The most significant and revered defender of this line of thought was Carneades (head of the Academy in the middle of the 2nd century BC), and the most authoritative exponent of his ideas was Cicero (106-43 BC), whose influential philosophical works were written mainly from the positions New Academy.

At the end of the 4th century. BC. In Greece, Stoicism was formed, which in the Hellenistic, as well as in the later Roman period, became one of the most widespread philosophical movements. The founder of Stoicism was Zeno from Kitium (a city in Cyprus) (about 333-262 BC). In Athens, he became acquainted with post-Socratic philosophy (both academic and the philosophy of the Cynic and Megarian schools) and in 302. BC. founds his own school. After his death (about 262 BC), the school was headed by the poet Cleanthes (until 232 BC) and Chrysippus, who revolutionized the teaching (232-206 BC).

Stoicism is focused mainly on ethical problems, in particular, on creating the ideal of a sage, indifferent to everything external, calm and always balanced, resistant to the blows of fate and proud of the consciousness of his inner freedom - from passions. The Stoics focus their main attention on man as an individual and ethical problems; questions about the essence of being are in second place for them. In ethics, the contrast between Stoicism and Epicureanism affected the issue of understanding freedom and the highest purpose of human life. All physics and ethics of the Epicureans are aimed at tearing man out of the shackles of necessity. For the Stoics, necessity (“fate”, “fate”) is immutable. Freedom, as Epicurus understands it, is impossible for the Stoics. People's actions differ not by whether they are performed freely or not freely - they all occur only out of necessity - but only because, voluntarily or under compulsion, a necessity that is inevitable in all cases is fulfilled. Fate leads those who agree with it, drags those who resist. Since man is a social being and at the same time a part of the world, the natural desire for self-preservation that drives his behavior, according to the Stoics, rises to concern for the good of the state and even to an understanding of responsibilities in relation to the world as a whole. Therefore, the sage places the good of the state above personal good and, if necessary, does not hesitate to sacrifice his life to it.

The Stoics finally divided philosophy into logic, physics and ethics. Logic was mainly studied by the Stoics, since the Epicureans considered logic useless for their purposes. The logic of the Hellenistic period began to include epistemology (theory of knowledge), whose main attention was focused on finding the “criterion of truth.” Logic also included scrupulous studies of grammar. Rejecting the sophistic conclusions of the Pre-Socratics, but not recognizing the “ideas” of Plato, the Stoics believed that another attempt should be made to base truth on sensory experience. This requires that there should exist in the mind an imprint clearly distinct from any false imprint, a mental image which itself bears witness to its truth. It was this premise that brought the Stoics under constant attack from academics and skeptics.

In the field of physics, there was a confrontation between the atomism of the Epicureans and the teachings of the Stoics. In physics, the Stoics assumed that the body of the world comes from fire, air, earth and water. All existence was thought of only as varying degrees of tension of the divinely material primordial fire. This fire turns into all other elements. The driving force of the universe, the divine mind, is the intelligent fire that governs everything. Nothing happens by chance, everything is ruled by fate. According to the Stoics, fate is the cosmos. Zeno said that fate is the power that moves matter. He defined God as the fiery mind of the world: God fills the whole world with himself, like honey fills a honeycomb. Obeying fate, world history follows a predetermined path.

However, this fatalism does not mean the abolition of ethics, either theoretically or practically. From the point of view of the Stoics, ethics is based not on causeless free will, but on volitional action: self-control, patience, and so on. A person is responsible for those actions that correspond to his will, and it is pointless to ask whether he could have wished for something different or not. According to the Stoics, the highest good is a reasonable act, life in accordance with nature, but not with animal nature, as with the Cynics, but with virtue. It is unreasonable to wish for the impossible, and we should not think about wealth, pleasure or fame, but only about what is in our control, that is, the internal response to life circumstances. This manifested the ideal of inner freedom from passions. The behavior of the Stoics served as an illustration of their ethics, and gradually they emphasized this more and more in their writings, highlighting the concept of a calm and always balanced sage. In general, Stoic ethics called for patience rather than hope.

The philosophical principle is rooted in the human subject. Language is also subjective. The Stoics proceeded from the principle of universal expediency. Everything has its own meaning.

The world around us is fundamentally reasonable and purposefully designed. According to Chrysippus, there is a world soul - it is the purest ether, the most mobile and light, femininely tender, as if the finest type of matter. The human soul is also reasonable, for it forms part of the cosmic mind - logos. The Stoics contrasted the feeling of instability of a person’s status in conditions of continuous military and social conflicts and weakening ties with the collective of citizens of the polis with the idea of ​​​​a person’s dependence on a higher good force (logos, nature, God) that controls everything that exists. In their view, a person is no longer a citizen of the polis, but a citizen of space; to achieve happiness, he must recognize the pattern of phenomena predetermined by a higher power (fate) and live in harmony with nature. Only life consistent with nature, its logos, is reasonable and virtuous, prudent. The main thing in the ethics of Stoicism is the doctrine of virtue, which consisted of calmness, equanimity, and the ability to steadfastly endure the blows of fate. Eclecticism and the ambiguity of the basic tenets of the Stoics ensured their popularity in different strata of Hellenistic society and allowed the doctrines of Stoicism to converge with mystical beliefs and astrology.

Stoic philosophy best reflects the developing crisis in the spiritual life of Greek society, which was a consequence of economic and political decay. It is Stoic ethics that most adequately reflects “its time.” This is the ethics of “conscious refusal,” conscious resignation to fate. It diverts attention from the external world, from society to the inner world of a person. Only within himself can a person find the main and only support. Therefore, Stoicism comes to life again during the crisis of the Roman Republic and then during the beginning of the collapse of the Roman Empire. Stoicism turned into a popular moralizing philosophy, which concentrated the noble precepts of antiquity. The central point of Stoicism is the ideal of the sage. The main motive is the desire to portray a perfect person, absolutely free from the influences of the surrounding life. This ideal is defined mainly negatively, as internal freedom from affects. The sage is tempted, but overcomes them. For him, virtue is not only the highest, but also the only good. The Stoics said that a person should submit to necessity, this is his main virtue. There is no need to go against fate.

The Stoics created the ethics of duty, the ethics of the moral law of reason, the ethics of internal freedom, internal rational self-determination, spiritual independence and independence, calm and unperturbed acceptance of one’s fate (ataraxia).

The beginning of Roman philosophy dates back to the 2nd-1st centuries. BC. Secondary to Greek, Roman philosophy is divided into Latin-language and Greek-language. A major role in the spread of Greek culture to warlike Rome, continuously expanding its territorial possessions, was played by its contacts with the southern Italian Greek cities (“Magna Graecia”), and then their conquest at the beginning of the 3rd century. BC. The Hellenophile circle formed around the Hellenophiles Scipio the Elder (Scipio Africanus - the conqueror of Hannibal) and Scipio the Younger (he took Carthage by storm and finally defeated it). The Hellenophiles were opposed by a man from the common people, a plebeian who became a senator and consul in 195. and censor in 184 Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder is a defender of Roman antiquity, simplicity of morals, and chastity. Cato was also angry with the Greek philosophers, based on the belief that philosophy undermines military valor.

Rome in the 1st century BC. experienced the intensive spread of Greek philosophical teachings: Epicureanism, Stoicism, skepticism, as well as their eclectic mixtures. In the Roman school of the Sextians (40s BC), Stoicism was combined with Pythagorean and Platonic elements. Figulus (died 44 BC) - the first representative of post-Pythagoreanism in Rome - studied mathematics and natural science, astrology and magic .

The synthesis of Roman and Greek cultures, the organic combination of Greek spirituality and Roman citizenship was continued by Cicero.

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC) came from the wealthy Roman “equestrian” class. He was born on his father’s estate in Latium and, having lived almost 64 years, was killed by the Caesarians a year and a half after the tyrant-fighting republicans, who did not understand that the time of the republic had passed, insidiously took the life of Gaius Julius Caesar.

Cicero set himself the noble task of bringing Greek philosophy to the Romans, making it as entertaining as possible, and showing that philosophy is possible not only in Greek, but also in Latin. He laid the foundations of Latin philosophical terminology. Cicero thought that philosophy should not only be smart, but also attractive, pleasing both the mind and the heart. He cannot be considered an original thinker, since he was just a talented popularizer and imitator. But this does not detract from the enormous importance of Cicero in the history of philosophy. Without him, the picture of the objective history of philosophy in Western Europe would be much poorer. True, Cicero is not always accurate and deep: he did not understand how great the difference is between the worldviews of Plato and Aristotle, retaining the conviction that a single and harmonious philosophy was created under two names: academic and peripatetic, which, while coinciding in essence, differed in names ...

Cicero discovered that there was no agreement between the philosophers and was at a loss. He didn't know who to believe. As a lawyer, he is confident that both sides should be heard in court. But philosophy has more sides - it is like a polyhedron. Cicero leaned toward moderate, probabilistic skepticism. He worked a lot on the history of the Secondary and New Academy, the fruit of which was his work “Academician”. Cicero endorsed "academic skepticism": " It is wise for academics to refrain from expressing approval of dubious matters.". He was impressed by the method of academic skeptics: " Dispute everything and express no definite opinion about anything"This speaker believed that a council of philosophers of different persuasions should be convened to discuss this or that problem.

During the early Roman Empire, Rome became the center of philosophy. The emperors of the Antonin dynasty (which is almost the entire 2nd century AD) themselves were fond of science, and the penultimate of them - Marcus Aurelius Antoninus - went down in the history of world philosophy. During this period, Pythagoreanism and Platonism were revived, the peripatetic Alexander of Aphrodisias, the skeptic Sextus Empiricus, the doxographer Diogenes Laertius, and the cynic Dion Chrysostom were active. But the main role in philosophy was played by Stoicism, where its most prominent representatives were Seneca (about 4 BC - 65 AD), his student Epictetus (about 50 - about 140) and Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180). They have never met. Seneca died when Epictetus was 15 years old. Epictetus passed away when Marcus Aurelius was 17 years old. But each subsequent one knew the works of the previous ones. All of them were fundamentally different in their social status. Seneca is a major dignitary and rich man, Epictetus is a slave and then a poor freedman, Marcus Aurelius is a Roman emperor.

In the 1st century BC. the Stoic worldview was shared by Varro, Columella, Virgil, and also many, many other educated and noble Roman citizens. From it they drew strength for a life full of unpredictable dangers.

Seneca (about 4 BC -65 AD) came from the “horsemen” class, received a comprehensive natural science, legal and philosophical education, and successfully practiced law for a relatively long period. Later he becomes the tutor of the future emperor Nero, after whose accession to the throne he receives the highest social position and honors. In the second year of Nero's power, he dedicates to him the treatise “On Mercy,” in which he calls on Nero as a ruler to maintain moderation and adhere to the republican spirit. Seneca rejects the desire to accumulate property, to secular honors and positions: " The higher one ascends, the closer he is to falling. Very poor and very short is the life of the man who, with great effort, acquires what he must keep with even greater effort."However, he used his social position and became one of the richest and most influential people in Rome. Seneca is an example of the divergence of worldview and lifestyle. He preached poverty, and he himself, by hook or by crook, sought to enrich himself. When his enemies pointed out the fact that his own life differs very sharply from the ideals that he proclaims, he answered them in the treatise “On a Happy Life”: “ I am told that my life does not agree with my teaching. Plato, Epicurus, and Zeno were reproached for this at one time. All philosophers talk not about how they themselves live, but how they should live. I talk about virtue, and not about myself, and I fight against vices, including my own: when I can, I will live as I should. After all, if I lived completely according to my teaching, who would be happier than me, but now there is no reason to despise me for my good speech and for my heart full of pure thoughts.” Seneca contrasted wisdom and philosophy, on the one hand, and knowledge, on the other. To be more learned means to be " not better, but only more learned." But " The one who clutters up philosophy itself with unnecessary things becomes no better.""who is engaged in word games, which destroys the soul and makes philosophy not great, but difficult"Excessive knowledge interferes with wisdom. Therefore, one must limit oneself in knowledge: " striving to know more than is required is a form of intemperance"For wisdom you need a lot of space in your head, and knowledge fills it with trifles, because no science, except philosophy, explores good and evil. Only philosophy and wisdom open the path to freedom.

Seneca sees the meaning of life in achieving absolute peace of mind. One of the main prerequisites for this is overcoming the fear of death. He devotes a lot of space to this issue in his works.

Knowledge of nature is necessary for the Stoics, because their main ethical requirement is to live in harmony with nature. Seneca, in his treatise On Benevolence, argued that " There can be no nature without God and no God without nature", and in the treatise “On Providence” he spoke of God as a force inherent in nature, which directs all ongoing processes quite expediently; the world mind (God) manifests itself in nature as its beauty and harmony. In “Natural Questions” Seneca identified God with fate, providence, nature, the world. He wrote about God: " Would you like to call it destiny? You can't go wrong. He is the one on whom everything depends; it is the cause of all causes. Would you like to call it providence? And here you will be right. He is the one whose decision ensures this world, so that nothing interferes with its progress, and all its actions are carried out. Would you like to call it nature? And this is not a mistake, for everything was born from his womb, we live by his breath. He is everything you see; he is completely fused with all parts, supporting himself with his power".

Paying tribute to the traditional Roman religion, Seneca calls this god Jupiter (the highest deity of the Roman pantheon), and at the same time, recognizing traditional polytheism, he speaks not only of a single god (monotheism), but also of gods (polytheism). In his Moral Letters to Lucilius, Seneca, giving the word "god" a plural form, states that " they (the gods) rule the world... arrange the Universe with their power, look after the human race, sometimes taking care of individual people".

In his treatise “On Benefits” he writes: “ Sociability ensured him (man) dominance over animals. Sociability gave him, the son of the earth, the opportunity to enter the alien kingdom of nature and also become the ruler of the seas... Eliminate sociability, and you will break the unity of the human race, on which human life rests". And in his "Moral Letters to Lucilius" Seneca argued that " everything that you see, which contains both the divine and the human, is one: we are only members of a huge body. Nature, who created us from the same thing and destined us for the same thing, gave birth to us as brothers. She put mutual love in us, made us sociable, she established what is right and fair, and according to her establishment, the one who brings evil is more unhappy than the one who suffers..."

Like all the Stoics, Seneca (starting with the suicide of Zeno of Kition) allowed the voluntary termination of his life, suicide, but under certain conditions. At the same time, he warned against the “voluptuous thirst for death,” which sometimes takes possession of people and becomes almost an epidemic. There must be good reasons for suicide, otherwise it is cowardice and cowardice! One of the grounds for suicide is not only physical illnesses, especially if they affect the soul, but also slavery. Those who do not have the courage to die become slaves. Seneca understood slavery broadly, drowning social slavery in everyday slavery, which is also inherent in the free. He argued that all people are essentially equal: " Was he not, whom you call slave, born of the same seed, walking under the same sky, breathing like you, living like you, dying like you?”

Seneca's ethics is the ethics of passive heroism. Nothing can be changed in life. One can only despise its misfortunes. The greatest thing in life is to stand firm against the blows of fate. For all his fatalism and preaching of submission to fate, Seneca praised his sound mind, courageous and energetic spirit, nobility, endurance and readiness for any turn of fate. It is with such readiness that only one can achieve for oneself a state of strong and unclouded joy, peace and harmony of spirit, greatness, but not proud and arrogant, but combined with meekness, friendliness and enlightenment. Seneca declared that " that life is happy, which is consistent with nature, and it can be consistent with nature only when a person has a sound mind, if his spirit is courageous and energetic, noble, enduring and prepared for all circumstances, if he, without falling into anxious suspiciousness, cares about satisfying his physical needs, if he is at all interested in the material aspects of life, without being tempted by any of them, if he knows how to use the gifts of fate without becoming their slave".

Philosophy as wisdom should teach all this. This is its highest and only purpose. The basis of human society, according to Seneca, is sociability. The cosmopolitan Seneca spoke of humanity, not of any one chosen people. And for him, the common fatherland for all people is the whole world, space. The problem of time is one of the most difficult in philosophy. Seneca asked: " Is it something in itself? Was there anything before time, without time? Did it arise along with the world? Or, before the world came into existence, since there was something, there was also time?” He could not answer these questions. But one thing is clear to him: he needs to take care of his time, this is the most precious thing a person has, for this is the time of his life.

Seneca said: " Freedom is a deity that dominates all things and events; nothing can change it. Hence humility and persistent enduring of life's adversities. The Stoic sage does not resist evil: he understands it and steadfastly remains in its semantic fluidity".

Epictetus (ca. 50 - ca. 140) is a unique phenomenon in ancient Western philosophy. He was born a slave, deprived of even a human name. Epictetus is not a name, but a nickname, a nickname for a slave: “epictetos” means “acquired.” Having become a freedman, Epictetus opened his own philosophical and educational school. He had many students and admirers, including noble and rich ones. However, Epictetus led a miserable, cynical life. All his property consisted of a straw mat, a wooden bench, a mat and a clay lamp, which after the death of the Stoic philosopher was sold at auction as a relic for 3 thousand drachmas (which was more than 13 kg of silver).

Epictetus himself did not write anything. Humanity owes the fact that his teaching was perpetuated to the disciple and admirer of the philosopher Flavius ​​Arrian. The main thesis of Epictetus was the assertion that the existing order of things cannot be changed, it does not depend on us. You can only change your attitude towards this order. His "Manual" (by Arrian) begins with the words: " Of all things, some are subject to us, and others are not. We are subject to our opinions, the aspirations of our hearts, our inclinations and our aversions, in a word, all our actions. We are not subject to our bodies, our property, fame, noble ranks; in a word, all things that are not our actions." And further: " If you are afraid of death, illness or poverty, you can never be calm. If you love your son or wife, remember that you love mortal people. In this way, when they happen to die, you will not lament. It is not things that confuse people, but the opinions they have about them." "Do not demand that things be done the way you want; but wish that they were done the way they are done, and in this way you will live carefree"; "... it is better to die of hunger, and to be without sadness and fear, than to live in external contentment with confusion of spirit..."; ". .. desire what depends on you." Epictetus compared life to theater, and people to actors and told his listener: " If he (God) wants you to imagine the face of a beggar, try to imagine it as skillfully as you can. The state and property of an ignoramus is to never expect either benefit or harm from oneself, but always from external things. The state and quality of a philosopher is to expect all benefit and all harm only from himself.”

The true essence of a person is in his mind, which is a particle of the world, cosmic mind. To take away a person's mind means to kill him. Man, further, is not only a rational being, but also a being possessing freedom of thought and free will. These human assets are inalienable.

Marcus Aurelius (reigned 161-180). This active, energetic emperor had to wage a new war with Parthia and repel an attack on the Marcomanni and Sarmatian empire on the Danube border. The empire was struck by a plague epidemic, from which the emperor himself died. After his death, philosophical notes were found in his possession, conventionally called by the publishers “To Myself,” or “Alone with Myself.” Marcus Aurelius did not share these philosophical thoughts with anyone. He addressed only himself as an imaginary interlocutor.

The Emperor did not call for an active fight against evil. Everything must be accepted as it happens. This is the path that man should follow. But how to reach him? Only philosophy can help with this. “To philosophize means to protect the inner genius from reproach and flaw, to ensure that he stands above pleasures and suffering, so that there is no recklessness, no deception, no hypocrisy in his actions, so that it does not concern him whether he does or does not do something - or his neighbor, so that he looks at everything that happens and is given to him as his destiny as emanating from where he himself came from, and most importantly, so that he resignedly awaits death as a simple decomposition of those elements from which every living being is composed.But if for the elements themselves there is nothing terrible in their constant transition into each other, then where is the reason for anyone to fear their reverse change and decomposition? After all, the latter is in accordance with nature, and what is in accordance with nature cannot be bad."

The worldview of Marcus Aurelius combined an acute awareness of the frailty, transience of life and preaching the need to be an energetic, fair statesman. Perhaps no one has manifested with such force the contradiction between philosophical transtemporality and practical immersion in temporality, as it happened with Marcus Aurelius. He, like no one else, keenly felt the passage of time, the brevity of human life, and human mortality. Before the infinity of time, both the longest and the shortest human life are equally insignificant. Time is infinite both ways. And inside it, the time of any human life is a moment. In the very time of our lives, only the present is real. As for the past and the future, the first has already been lived and does not exist, and the second is unknown and does not exist yet. Reflecting on the human soul, Marcus Aurelius considered it unclear whether it would live after death or merge with the world soul. It is interesting that Marcus Aurelius for a moment admitted the possibility of complete death, because one must be prepared for anything; he also admitted that there are no gods.

It is a vain hope to remain long in the memory of posterity: " The longest posthumous glory is also insignificant; it lasts only in a few short-lived generations of people who do not know themselves, let alone those who have long since passed away. Everything is short-lived and soon begins to resemble a myth, and then falls into complete oblivion. And I’m also talking about people who at one time were surrounded by an unusual aura. As for the rest, they should give up the ghost so that “there will be no mention of them.” What is eternal glory? - sheer vanity".

There is and will not be anything new in this all-consuming, boundless stream of life. Indeed, behind the present for Marcus Aurelius lay a large and rather monotonous story. The emperor did not find any qualitative changes in her.

However, one should not reduce the worldview of Marcus Aurelius only to its negative, although its most powerful and expressive side. The fact is that from the pessimism of the philosopher on the throne, his acute awareness of the short duration of human life itself, and the memory of him, and glory, does not follow the preaching of inaction. Marcus Aurelius has a set of moral values ​​that are undeniable to him. He wrote that the best things in life are “justice, truth, prudence, courage.” Yes, everything is “sheer vanity,” but still there are things in life that should be taken seriously. It is also necessary to note such a value as “generally beneficial activity”. Marcus Aurelius also called it “civility” and put it on a par with reason. The emperor contrasted these true values ​​with such imaginary values ​​as “the approval of the crowd, power, wealth, a life full of pleasures.”

Marcus Aurelius also created a positive ideal of man. This creature is “courageous, mature, devoted to the interests of the state.” This is a Roman. This is a being invested with power, who feels himself on duty and who “with a light heart awaits the challenge of leaving life.” This is a being who sees "wisdom exclusively in just action."

With the conviction of the fluidity of everything, he amazingly coexisted with the idea that everything is some kind of one big Whole, which is controlled by the mind of the Whole, its Logos. In the Whole, everything is predetermined: people, as rational beings, are united in their minds, in it they converge with each other.

Man, in the understanding of Marcus Aurelius, is threefold - he has:

1) the body is perishable,

2) soul or, which is not quite the same, “manifestation of vital force”,

3) the guiding principle, what Marcus Aurelius called the mind in man, his genius, his deity. A person must nurture it within himself, not offend him with anything inferior, “not desecrate the genius living in... the chest.” And this means never considering for yourself useful what " will ever prompt you to break your promise, forget shame, hate someone, suspect, curse, be a hypocrite, desire something that is hidden behind walls and castles. After all, the one who has given preference to his spirit, genius and the service of his virtue does not put on a tragic mask, does not utter lamentations, does not need either solitude or crowds. He will live - and this is the most important thing - without pursuing anything and without avoiding anything. After all, all his life he only thinks about not allowing his soul to descend to a state unworthy of reason.".

The disappointment and fatigue of the emperor is the disappointment and fatigue of the Roman Empire itself, the future of which was truly unknown. Marcus Aurelius did not know that his unsuccessful and dubious son would be killed and with the death of Commodus (161-192) the Antonine dynasty would end, and the Roman state would enter troubled times in the middle of the 3rd century. will actually disintegrate. The ancient world really ended with him. The Time of Troubles gave birth to Plotinus. Diocletian assembled an empire. But it was a completely different empire. The principate gave way to dominance. Overt, and not episodic, as was the case during the early empire, oriental despotism reigned. Soon after its rebirth, the Roman Empire adopted Christianity. A new era has begun - the final decline of ancient times and the flowering of Christian culture.

The teaching of the Stoics lasted for more than six centuries. This indicates the relevance of their views throughout antiquity and the significance of these views. The most important feature of the teachings of the Stoics, especially the later ones, is the recognition of all human beings as equal in nature. This objectively meant the denial of class and the importance of a person’s social position and judging him only on his personal merits. Hence their opinion that the philosophical principle itself is rooted in man himself. The Stoics not only preached these views, but also tried to put them into practice. Thus, during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the situation of women and slaves was improved. The teachings of the Stoics served as one of the essential foundations of early Christianity. Their ideas have not lost their relevance today.

It is to the period of late Hellenism that the teaching of the Stoics should be attributed, for it reached its highest flowering in Ancient Rome. The example of Epicureanism, which was already developed by Titus Lucretius Carus during the period of late Hellenism, is also appropriate here. Essentially, the teaching of the Neoplatonists has roots in classical antiquity.

You are stuck a thousand kilometers from home without even your belongings. Such a predicament would cause most people to despair and curse their terrible fate. But for Zeno of Citium it became the basis of his life and legacy. A once wealthy merchant lost everything when he was shipwrecked near Athens around 300 BC. Left without his own business, he accidentally wandered into a bookstore, became interested in the teachings of Socrates, and then continued to study with famous philosophers of the city.

Later, Zeno founded a new school of philosophy and began to educate his own students. This school of philosophy is called Stoicism. It is a teaching of virtue, tolerance, and self-control that has inspired generations of thinkers and leaders.

The name Stoicism comes from the Greek. Stoa Poikilē (Painted Portico) – colonnades in Athens. Those who gathered here in search of solitude, Zeno and his disciples were nicknamed “ Stoics " Today, in everyday speech, we use the word "stoic" to describe a person who shows courage in life's trials and avoids emotional extremes. This reveals important aspects of Stoicism, but in the original source this teaching is much deeper.

Marcus Aurelius from the Antonine dynasty, philosopher, representative of late Stoicism, follower of Epictetus. The last of the five "good" emperors.

The Stoics believed that everything around us is like a network woven from causes and effects. Thus the Universe has a rational structure called Logos. And although we do not always control the events that affect us, we can always control our attitude towards these events.

Instead of imagining an ideal society, the Stoic tries to accept the world as it is, engaging in self-improvement through the cultivation of the four cardinal virtues: practical (the ability to navigate difficult situations using logic, knowledge and a calm mind), temperance (exhibiting restraint and moderation in all aspects of life), justice and courage not only in emergency situations, but also in solving everyday problems. As one of the most famous Roman Stoics, Seneca, said, “Sometimes even living is an act of courage.”

Although Stoicism focuses on self-improvement, it is not a self-centered philosophy. At a time when Roman law treated slaves as objects of property, Seneca called for their humane treatment and emphasized that we all share the same basic humanity. Stoicism does not encourage passivity. The idea is that only people who have cultivated virtue and self-control within themselves can help others become better people. One of the most famous Stoic writers was also one of the greatest emperors of the Roman Empire.

Stoicism gave Marcus Aurelius the determination to lead an empire for 19 years, endure two major wars, and lose many children. Centuries later, these same ideas would console and guide South African racial rights activist Nelson Mandela during his 27-year prison sentence. Following his release and the final victory over apartheid, Mandella advocated a peaceful resolution of differences, believing that while the injustices of the past could not be completely eradicated, his people could confront them to build a better future.

Stoicism was an active school of philosophy for several centuries in Greece and Rome. As a formal "institution" Stoicism disappeared, but its influence continues to this day. Christian theologians such as Thomas Aquinas admired and emphasized the virtues of the Stoics. Parallels can also be drawn between the atraxia of Stoicism and the peace of mind in Buddhism.

One particularly influential Stoic was the philosopher Epictetus, who wrote that suffering is not related to the events in our lives, but to our judgments about them. This idea can be traced in modern psychology.

For example, rational-emotive behavioral therapy focuses on changing people's self-formed views about their life circumstances. There is also Viktor Frankl Logotherapy, formed by Frankl while imprisoned in a concentration camp. Logotherapy is based on the Stoic principle that we can use willpower to bring meaning to our lives even in the darkest situations.

Stoicism is an ancient philosophical movement that is a kind of tribute to virtue, teaching everyone responsibility, order and morality. These dogmas arose during late Hellenism and lasted for several centuries. Stoicism received its essence, foundations and name in Greece, but quickly became popular in Rome. It is impossible to briefly describe what Stoicism is. Therefore, we will consider this concept more broadly, relying on the teachings and works of ancient sages.

Stoicism: Description and Origin

The approximate date of the founding of Stoicism is considered to be the 4th century BC. e. It was at that time that the first performance of Zeno of Citium took place in the Portico of Stoa Poikile, playing the role of a teacher who told everyone about his thoughts and discoveries in the field of philosophy. Thus, he became the founder of a new movement, which over time quickly acquired other stereotypes and dogmas.

If we consider it as a whole, then in philosophy, stoicism is steadfastness, masculinity, perseverance and firmness to all trials in life. We can confidently say that the image of a real Stoic, as he should have looked according to ancient philosophers, is firmly rooted in the subconscious of European society. This term always defines an unsentimental, hardy person, those people who feel a sense of duty to others and to themselves. It should also be noted that stoicism is the rejection of any emotions, since it is emotions that prevent a person from making the right decisions and thinking sensibly.

Periods of Stoicism

Scientific opinions differ on this issue. Some scientists identify a zero period in the history of the development of Stoicism. There is an opinion that the sages in Stoa Poikil, who had precisely stoic views on life, gathered several centuries before the birth of the founder of this school, but, alas, their names were lost.

1. First period – Ancient Stoa. Lasted from the 4th to the 2nd centuries BC. e. Its main character, naturally, was the founder of the Stoic philosopher, Zeno of Citium. Chrysippus and Cleanthes from Sol performed with him. This stage of Stoicism is considered exclusively Greek, since the teachings have not yet gone anywhere beyond the borders of this state. After the death of the founders, his students began to take up his work, among whom are Antipater, Crates of Mallus, Diogenes of Babylon, etc.
2. Stoic Platonism or Middle Stoa. Existed from the 2nd to the 1st century BC. e. The main characters of this time were Panetius of Rhodes and Posidonius. It was they who began to transport their teachings and knowledge to Rome. Their students continued to develop the movement - Athenodorus, Diodotus, Dardanus, etc.
3. Late Standing. Lasted from the 1st to the 2nd centuries AD. uh. This time is also called Roman Stoicism, since it was in this country that the development of this school already continued. The main representatives of the third period are Epictetus, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius.

What is the philosophy of Stoicism based on?

To understand how the sages at that time expressed their thoughts, what they specifically put into people’s heads, you need to understand what exactly the teaching of this school was. The theory of Stoicism, “patented” by Zeno, was divided into three parts.

1. Logics.
2. Physics.
3. Ethics.

This is exactly the frequency.

Logics

For the Stoics, logic consisted of purely theoretical assumptions, each of them had to be true. Moreover, it should be immediately noted that it was impossible to compare them, since each subsequent assumption contradicts the correctness of the previous one.

It is necessary to go through this stage of the teaching because, as Chrysippus said, it changes the material state of the soul. So, let's briefly consider a few logical conclusions of Stoicism:

• If there is A, then there is also B. A exists, respectively, so does B.
• Together A and B do not exist. And, accordingly, we have that B cannot exist.
• There is either A or B. Moreover, B is absent. Accordingly, there is A.

Physics

To understand this section, it is necessary to remember that in philosophy, Stoicism is a purely material thing. All his teachings are based precisely on matter, rejecting both emotions and feelings, and other manifestations of something intangible and inexplicable. That is, the Stoics were people who saw the world as a living organism, which is a material particle and a material Creator who created it all. This is exactly how people are represented, whose fate is predetermined by God - in this context it is called “fate”. Since any objection to the Creator’s plan is punishable and meaningless.

The Stoics believe that at the stage of fulfilling their duty, people encounter passion, which becomes their main “thorn.” By getting rid of passions, a person becomes strong and ready for battle. Moreover, force is a subtle matter sent by the Almighty.

Ethics

In terms of ethics, the Stoics are comparable to the cosmopolitans. The Stoics believed that every person is a citizen of the universe, and every person is equal before God. That is, women and men, Greeks and barbarians, slaves and masters are on the same level. Stoicism in ancient philosophy teaches all people to be kind, forces them to improve and develop themselves, and guides them on the true path. Moreover, any deviations from the rules, committing sins or giving in to passions are a lower act. In short, the meaning of Stoic ethics is that every person is one of many elements of the overall plan. And those people who agree with this are led by fate, while those who deny their destiny are dragged by fate.

Let's summarize the information

Now that we have examined all the parts that make up Stoicism, let us briefly characterize it. You have to live without causing harm to yourself and others, in accordance with nature. You need to go with the flow, obey your fate, since everything has its own reason. Moreover, you need to remain courageous, strong and impartial. A person must be constantly ready to overcome any obstacle in order to be the best and useful to the universe and to the Lord.

Also, the characteristic of Stoicism lies in its affects, of which there are four:

• Pleasure.
• Disgust.
• Lust.
• Fear.

Only “ortho logos” – correct thinking – can help prevent them.

Development of Ancient Stoicism

At the time when Stoicism was just emerging in Greece, it was more theoretical in nature than practical. All adherents who are followers of this philosophy, including the founder of this school himself, worked on developing a theory, the written basis of its course. As we can see today, they succeeded. A certain material base, specific logical conclusions, as well as results called the definition of “ethics” appeared in the “physics” section. As the sages in Ancient Greece believed, the meaning of Stoicism lies precisely in argument, which is clearly proven by logical conclusions. Probably, it was the Stoics who were the authors of the catchphrase “truth is born in dispute.”

Middle stage of Stoicism

On the threshold of a change of eras, when Greece was a colony of the imperious and powerful Rome, the teachings of Stoicism became the property of this state. In turn, the Romans preferred deeds to words, so this is a movement in philosophy ceased to be purely theoretical in nature.

Over time, all the knowledge that the Greeks acquired began to be used in practice. It was the phrases of Greek philosophers that motivated almost all the soldiers of the army of Rome.

Their quotes provided support and support for people who were lost in life. In addition, years later, Stoicism is so has taken root in society, that over time the lines began to blur (but not completely) between the sexes, as well as between masters and slaves. That is, society in Rome became more educated, reasonable and humane.

Philosophy in Ancient Rome. The Last Years of Stoicism

At the beginning of the new era, this trend in philosophy had already become an unwritten life rule and a kind of religion for any resident of Rome. All the conclusions of Stoicism, its logic, metaphors and laws were already in the past. To society all the main ideas were embodied Greek philosophers - submission to fate, impartiality and materiality of everyone and everything. But here it should be noted that it was during this era that Christianity gradually spread throughout the world, which over time conquered almost all the states of Asia and Europe. How were things in Rome?

Stoicism is everything for Rome. This philosophy was their faith and life. The Romans believed that man had to be as close to nature as possible. He must remain reserved, extremely calm and cold. But the main idea, which was derived directly from the inhabitants of Rome, was based on the teachings of the Greeks, that is, “to conquer the fear of death.” As they believed, a person who has coped with this flaw will be the most important link in the Universe.

Features of the Roman development of Stoicism

Naturally, when it comes to fears and death, this is the main sign that philosophy is turning into theology. As you know, people are afraid of the first, and therefore they obey all dogmas, unconditionally observing any rule. Stoicism in recent years existence acquired in Rome not only a very large scale, but also pessimistic sentiments. For the Stoics (and this was the main elite of society), what was important was not unity with nature and self-development, but absolute submission to fate. Moreover, the main task was to overcome the fear of death. That is, any person was determined that at any time he might not exist, and there was nothing wrong with that.

Connection with Christianity

In the initial stages of its existence, Christianity did not find its adherents in every corner of our planet. For a long time, people could not abandon the traditions of their ancestors and ancient beliefs. Often they united with Christianity(dualism), the same tendency was in Rome. From the very first century AD, Stoicism spread on a large scale in the country. The inhabitants of Ram were simply obsessed with unity with nature and apathy, but quite quickly their views begin to change under the influence of the new religion. For a long time, the Romans did not recognize Christianity. As time passed, the foundations of these theological teachings began to complement each other.

It should be noted that Christianity at that time was the youngest religion, which needed some basis, and this was provided by Stoicism. Today can be clearly traced this relationship. Since in both teachings we are told that we must not indulge in fear, evil, vices, we must not be partial. Both Stoicism and Christianity are teachings about power, about knowledge, about kindness, and also about the fact that the ways of the Lord are inscrutable, and each of us must be obedient to the Supreme Creator.

Stoicism today

In the modern world it is almost impossible to find a typical Stoic. Ancient dogmas of teaching are studied either by scientists who are closely involved in this, or by theologians, and mainly followers of eastern religions(they have more in common with the teachings of Stoicism). Each of us can gain some knowledge from the Bible to a certain extent. For the sake of fairness, it should be noted that the bulk of the commandments are based on Roman theology.

But in some cases, modern people are still called Stoics. This happens when a person becomes a fatalist, completely gives up, loses all faith in his capabilities and himself. These people are typical apaths, taking for granted every turn in life, any discovery or loss. If something terrible happens, they are not really upset and do not enjoy life.

Conclusion

In philosophy, Stoicism is a huge science that has existed for many centuries and gave rise to many teachings and knowledge that appeared in the Middle Ages. The Stoics were convinced that the Universe is material, and any particle of it, any element has its own purpose and destiny. Therefore, you should never resist current events. Everything that happens has its reasons, and people who live in harmony with nature will be a worthy part of the Universe. Those who oppose all this will be unhappy. Since their fate, one way or another, is predetermined, and there is no escape from it.

Sooner or later, each of us asks the questions: am I living right? Am I building relationships with other people correctly? Is there any meaning to my existence?

Humanity has created religions and schools of philosophy to find answers to these questions. Today, science is also being involved in the search for these answers.

If you want to look for “guidance for action” in religion, you may like the ideas of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic religions, the many schools of Buddhism, Taoism or Confucianism. If you prefer philosophy, you can turn to existentialism, secular humanism, secular Buddhism, ethical culture...

We will talk about one of the possibilities in more detail. We are talking about Stoicism, an ancient philosophical school, and more precisely, about the application of these ideas in the 21st century. The book by philosophy professor Massimo Pigliucci, “How to be a Stoic,” published by Alpina Publisher, will help us understand such a difficult topic.

Many people mistakenly believe that stoicism is about suppressing and hiding emotions, like Mr. Spock from Star Trek. In reality, stoicism is thinking about your emotions, the reasons for their occurrence, as well as the ability to direct them for your own good.

The main principle of Stoicism is the ability to distinguish between what is under our control and what is not. You should concentrate your efforts on the first and not waste your time on the second.

The main feature of Stoicism is its practicality. The opinion that philosophy is purely theoretical reasoning that has nothing in common with the real world does not apply to him. In addition, Stoicism is characterized by openness to new knowledge and a willingness to criticize.

Stoicism, due to its applied nature, is well suited for both believers and non-believers. For example, the author of the book “How to be a Stoic? “, being a non-religious person, preferred stoicism to the same new atheism due to the latter’s unceremoniousness.

Principle #1: Don't worry about things outside of our control.

Stoicism recognizes that not everything depends on us. To paraphrase the author of the book, Massimo Pigliucci, a person needs to have peace of mind to accept what cannot be changed, courage to change what is possible, and wisdom to always distinguish one from the other.

Most people are bothered by the thought of things they cannot control. It's funny: these same people may well agree that there is no point in worrying about things outside of our control.

Let's say the issue of your promotion is being decided. You believe that you deserve this promotion because you have worked for the company for many years, always achieved high results, and built good relationships with your colleagues. Let's also assume that the final decision on your promotion will be made tomorrow. The Stoic approach will allow you to sleep peacefully all night, and in the morning you will know your decision, whatever it may be.

You are calm not because you are confident in your promotion. You are calm because you know that you have done everything that is within your control, and in principle you have no opportunity to influence everything else. So why suffer from insomnia?

Because of this principle, Stoicism is often interpreted as a passive philosophy and a call for humility. This is fundamentally wrong. The principles of Stoic philosophy were adhered to by many leading statesmen, generals and emperors, that is, people who were clearly not prone to fatalistic inactivity. What distinguished them from many other people was that they were wise enough to distinguish between their goals, which were under their control, and external results, which they could influence but could not completely control.

Principle No. 2. Don’t be afraid of losing things and people

From the previous point follows the principle of non-attachment to things and people, which is also preached by Buddhism and many other philosophies and religions. And this idea is also often misinterpreted.

Often, attachment to a new phone is put on a par with attachment to one’s own child or mother. It may seem that the principle of non-attachment only suits a complete sociopath.

But the Stoics did not encourage people not to love and care for their family and friends. They simply communicated the raw, hard truth that is not easy to accept: that we are all mortal, and none of our loved ones belong to us and will remain with us forever. Understanding this truth helps you maintain your sanity in the event of the death of a loved one and calmly cope with parting with a close friend who is leaving for another city. And also, by accepting this thought, we realize that it is better to enjoy the love of our loved ones and communication with them whenever possible, and not take them for granted.

Principle #3: Go beyond the biological

Another Stoic principle is the following: given that we differ from other animal species in intelligence, this obliges us to behave ethically. In other words, we should not behave like animals, because this erases our human essence, the most valuable thing we have.

Stoic ideas about ethics can be called similar to intuitionists, who believe that ethical knowledge is inherent in us - that is, we are able to intuitively make clear distinctions between right and wrong. This hypothesis is supported by the behavior of animals in their natural environment. For example, primates demonstrate the rudiments of ethical behavior when they come to the aid of unrelated individuals in trouble. It is unlikely that such behavior in, say, pygmy chimpanzees is explained by their familiarity with ethical concepts of right and wrong.

At the same time, the Stoics took something from the ideas of the empiricists (who believe that any knowledge, including ethical knowledge, can be achieved through observations and experiments), and from the ideas of the rationalists (who came to knowledge through reflection on the subject).

The Stoics adhered to the idea of ​​"age-related development" of ethical awareness. Its essence lies in the fact that at the beginning of our lives we are guided by instincts and it is they that make us take care of ourselves and loved ones. As we reach adulthood (around 6-8 years), we learn to expand our ethical awareness. From this point on, our instincts are supported by a combination of introspection and experience, that is, rationalistic and empirical approaches. According to the Stoics, the older a person becomes, the more the balance should shift from innate instincts towards reasoning.

Developing this idea, the Stoics proposed the concept of Stoic cosmopolitanism, which is conveniently represented in the form of concentric circles. The basic idea is to treat people in your outer circles the same way you treat people in your inner circles.

The process of improvement occurs when you do not limit yourself to the center of the circle, but are part of all the other concentric circles.