The meaning of Confucianism. The meaning of Confucianism Emblems of modern religions
Self-name Zhu jia ("School of learned scribes"). Ethical-political and philosophical doctrine, and then one of the main philosophical and religious movements of China, along with Taoism and Buddhism.
The main provisions of Confucianism were developed by the philosopher Kun Tzu (Kun Qiu, Kun Zhongni, Kung Fu-tzu - hence the Latinized Confucius - Confucius, 551 - 479 BC) and set out in his treatise Lun Yu (L Conversations and Judgments ¦). Then the ideas of Confucius were developed and supplemented by his followers - Mencius, Xunzi, Dong Zhongshu, Zhu Xi and other philosophers.
The predecessors of the Confucians were people from hereditary bureaucratic families, who, in case of loss of official post, turned into wandering philosophers and teachers who made their living by teaching ancient books: Shijing, Shujing, Liji, which then became part of the Confucian canon (Thirteen Books), and the lost subsequently LYuejing¦ (LBook of Music). During the Chunqiu period (722-481 BC), there were especially many such wandering philosophers in the kingdoms of Lu (homeland of Confucius) and Zou (homeland of Mencius) in the territory of modern Shandong province. Therefore, it was there that Confucianism originated.
The first stage in the formation of Confucianism was the activity of Confucius himself, who also belonged to the class of “learned scribes”. His teaching was distinguished by its socio-political orientation. First of all, it called for the harmonization of the social system and for the strengthening of existing forms of government through strict adherence to ancient traditions and certain principles of relationships between people in the family and society.
The starting point of Confucianism is the concept of Heaven (Tian) and “heavenly decree” (order, i.e. fate). Heaven is part of nature, but at the same time it is also the highest spiritual power that determines nature itself and man (“Life and death are determined by fate, wealth and nobility depend on Heaven.”). A person endowed by Heaven with certain ethical qualities must act in accordance with them and with the highest moral law (Tao), and also improve these qualities through education.
The goal of self-improvement is to achieve the level of a “noble husband” (jun-tzu) - this level does not depend on social origin, but is achieved through cultivating high moral qualities and culture. “A noble husband” must first of all have ren – humanity, humanity and love for people. Ren is based on the principle “what you don’t wish for yourself, don’t do to others.” Outwardly, ren manifests itself in a fair attitude towards others, in loyalty, a sense of duty and sincerity.
A special place in the teachings of Confucius is occupied by the concept of xiao - filial piety, respect for parents and elders in general. Xiao is considered not only the basis of ren and its associated virtues, but also the most effective method of governing a country (a country is a large family).
Considerable importance is also attached to music, as the best means of changing bad morals and customs, and the dominant role is given to the rules of decency that regulate human behavior in different life situations.
The basis for the doctrine of a clear hierarchical division of responsibilities in society, as well as the correct understanding of things and their application, was the concept of zheng ming v “correction of names,” i.e., bringing things into accordance with their name.
On the basis of these philosophical principles, Confucius developed his political concepts, advocating a strict, clear, hierarchical division of responsibilities between members of society, for which the family should serve as a model. This idea was expressed by Confucius in his famous saying: A ruler should be a ruler, and a subject should be a subject; father is father, and son is son. At the same time, the ruler was called upon to rule the people not so much on the basis of laws and punishments, but rather by an example of personal virtue and highly moral behavior, on the basis of customary law, without burdening the people with heavy taxes and duties.
Confucius often criticized individual rulers and contrasted them with the “wise” and “virtuous” rulers of distant times? Yao, Shunya, Wen Wang, Wu Wang, Zhou Gong and a number of others. Confucius contrasted the social disorder of his contemporary society with the ideal society of da tong ("great unity"), which supposedly existed in the early years of the Zhou dynasty (1027-256 BC). Confucius considered the beginning of the Zhou era to be the “golden age,” when there were no wars and strife, universal equality and genuine concern for the people of the rulers reigned. The entire philosophical system of Confucius was aimed at reviving this “golden age”.
Confucius considered religious ideas and folk beliefs to be superstitions. He was almost not interested in the problems of cosmogony, he paid little attention to the doctrine of spirits and other world(Without yet knowing what life is, how can you know what death is?¦; Without knowing how to serve people, how can you serve spirits?¦). But at the same time, Confucius advocated the preservation of existing customs and insisted on the careful and scrupulous performance of rituals and ceremonies, of which he especially singled out the ritual of sacrifice to ancestors as the most important way of expressing respect for them. He believed that by strictly observing the traditions sanctified by antiquity, it was possible to return to the original origins and thus achieve a revival of the “Golden Age” and again build a society of harmony and justice.
After the death of Confucius, his followers founded eight independent schools, of which the most significant were two: the school led by Mencius (c. 372-289 BC) and the school led by Xunzi (c. 313 v 235, or about 298 v 238 BC).
Mencius's most important innovation was the thesis that human nature is inherently good. Based on this, the idea developed about the innate knowledge of good and the ability to create it, about the emergence of evil in a person as a result of not following one’s nature, making mistakes or the inability to isolate oneself from the outside. negative influence. Mencius spoke about the need to fully reveal the original nature of man through education, which allows him to know Heaven and serve it. Heaven is interpreted by Mencius as the highest guiding force, which determines the fate of people and states through its influence on the people and the ruler. Philanthropy (ren), justice (i), good morals (li) and knowledge (zhi) are also innate to man, and ren and and often act together: ren as a principle that unites people, and and v that differentiates them.
Ren and y are the basis of the concept of “humane government” developed by Mencius (ren zheng), in which the main role is already given to the people (“The people are the main thing in the state, followed by the spirits of the earth and grain, and the sovereign takes the last place”). This is where the idea came from that the people had the right to overthrow a cruel or unworthy ruler by uprising.
Xunzi brought into Confucianism the ideas of other philosophical schools, in particular, Taoism (in the field of ontology) and Legalism (an ancient Chinese ethical and political doctrine of the management of man, society and the state). Xunzi proceeded from the concept of qi - primordial matter, or material force, which has two forms: yin (darkness, passivity, feminine) and yang (light, activity, masculine). The world exists and develops in accordance with natural, knowable patterns; The sky is an active natural element of the world; it does not control people, but, on the contrary, can be subordinated to them and used in the interests of people. Happiness and unhappiness, wealth and poverty, health and illness, order and disorder depend on man as a part of nature. Man is evil by nature - he is already born envious and malicious, with an instinctive sense of profit. Therefore, a person must be influenced through education (li v etiquette) and law (Confucius rejected the law), forced to observe traditions and rituals and fulfill duty - then he will have virtue and culture. Perfection is achieved through long training that lasts a lifetime.
Xun Tzu considered fair orders and love for the people, respect for traditions and respect for scientists, reverence for the wise and involvement in state affairs to be the main links in governing the country. capable people, and the measure of government is justice and peace.
During the Han era (206 BC - 220 AD), Confucianism finally established itself in China and took a dominant position. In 136 BC. e. Emperor Wu Di (140-87 BC) proclaimed Confucianism the official doctrine, and the philosopher Dong Zhongshu (180-115, or 179-104 BC) proposed banning other teachings and declaring Confucianism the only true teaching, which all subjects of the state must strictly follow. After this, Confucianism remained the dominant doctrine and ideology in China for over two thousand years (until the bourgeois Xinhai Revolution of 1911).
Dong Zhongshu combined Confucianism with the doctrine of the cosmic forces of yin and yang and the five primary elements (wu xing). He defined human nature as innate, received from Heaven. It contains equal parts of humanity (ren) and greed, which reflects the actions of the forces of yin and yang in the sky. Feelings (the sources of evil) are also part of human nature, but through education, human nature becomes good and complete.
The people must be educated by the ruler, who was proclaimed the “Son of Heaven” (Tianzi), ruling at his command and thus fulfilling his will. Accordingly, the power of the ruler was recognized as sacred and bestowed from above.
The principle of relations between ruler and subjects was expressed in the concept of “three connections”: ruler v subject, father v son, husband v wife, where the first components correspond to the dominant force of yang and are a model for the second, corresponding to the subordinate force of yin. In this way, the authoritarian power of the emperor became sacred and was fully justified, which contributed to the adoption of Confucianism as the official ideology.
On the basis of Confucianism, a specific form of public administration was created in China, which was based on a system of examinations for holding public positions. Thanks to such a system, only learned Confucians could hold government positions (although Confucian teaching in tradition was understood rather as “science” in general, and Confucians v zhu (Learned scribes) - simply as enlightened and educated people).
Gradually, religious and mystical features are becoming increasingly stronger in Confucianism. Are the provisions about Heaven (Tian) as a predetermining divine force, about the dependence of society and man on the will of Heaven, about the divine origin of the sovereign’s power already coming to the fore? “Son of Heaven”, about the loyalty of the subject to the sovereign and about the dominion of the “Son of Heaven” over all the peoples of the Universe.
A cult of worship of Confucius was also formed, who began to be revered as the first teacher of mankind. In 174, Emperor Gaozu personally visited the tomb of Confucius in his homeland in Qufu (Shandong Province) and sacrificed an ox on it. Fifty years later, a temple was erected in honor of Confucius. In 267, an imperial decree ordered the sacrifice of a sheep, a pig and an ox in the capital and in the homeland of Confucius four times a year. In 555, it was prescribed that a temple in honor of Confucius should be built in every city where the residence of a government official was located. The descendants of Confucius in the direct line received a hereditary princely title, and the eldest in the family had to devote himself to caring for the grave and temple. At the beginning of the twentieth century. the clan of Confucius numbered 20-30 thousand members; it still exists today.
Confucianism penetrated into all pores of public life and determined moral norms, family and social traditions, scientific and philosophical thought, developing certain stereotypes in the minds of the people, especially among the enlightened strata of society.
During the Tang period (618-907), Confucianism was in difficult conditions of competition, struggle and coexistence with Buddhism and Taoism. A major role in this struggle belonged to the famous writer and thinker Han Yu (768–824), who sharply criticized Buddhism and defended Confucianism. Han Yu paid special attention to the doctrine of human nature, in relation to which he first introduced the concept of san pin ("three steps"): highest - absolutely good; medium v capable of developing in both positive and negative directions; and the lowest v is absolutely bad. At the same time, human nature was separated from feelings: a person receives his nature at birth, but he acquires feelings in contact with external things. Han Yu expanded the category of ren to the concept of “universal love”.
The new stage in the development of Confucianism dates back to the Song (960–1279) and Ming (1279–1644) eras and is associated with the name of Zhu Xi (1130–1200)? an outstanding scientist-historian, philologist and philosopher, who is the creator of an updated philosophical system - neo-Confucianism (or Zhuxianism).
Zhu Xi, having systematized and preserved all the basic ideas of Confucianism, developed a dualistic concept of two principles - ideal, primary li and material, secondary qi: li needs “attachment” to a certain qi, qi needs li as the law of its existence, therefore they are inseparable . All principles, actual and possible, as well as qi, are contained in the formless Great Limit (Tai Chi), which exists in all things taken together (the Universe) and individually. Whether a person (or a thing) is his nature, real and concrete, and whether his original nature, untouched by anything and perfect, is the moral mind, while his nature, mixed with human desires and the physical element, is human reason, subject to both good as well as evil. Ren in Zhu Xi’s interpretation took the form of “the character of the human mind and the rule of love.”
The generalizing teaching of Zhu Xi far surpassed classical Confucianism in the depth and level of its theoretical constructs and the diversity of the problems being developed. In subsequent centuries, Zhu Xianism became the dominant direction of Confucianism, which in this form became further widespread both in China itself and beyond its borders - in Japan, Korea and Vietnam.
During the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty (1644-1911), Lamaism became the court cult of the imperial court and the religious and philosophical positions of Confucianism weakened somewhat. In addition, Confucian ideology is already becoming a brake on the path to scientific and technological progress and contributes to the isolation of China from European civilization, which was one of the factors that determined the relative backwardness of China during this period.
At the end of the 19th century? beginning of the 20th century bourgeois philosopher and reformer Kang Yuwei (1858-1927) launched a struggle to establish a constitutional monarchy in China and transform Confucianism into the state religion. He also made an attempt to modernize Confucianism, which increasingly came into conflict with the changing conditions of social life. Kang Yuwei developed the concept of “changes”, or “changes” (bian), as a manifestation of the “way of Heaven” and the “law (li) of things”, which has an evolutionary and largely individual character. He interpreted the concept of ren as the power of love that unites people. Kang Yuwei explained the historical development of mankind using the theory of three stages: chaos, “rising peace” and “great peace”, replacing each other in the evolutionary process. As a result, evolution must end with a universal “great unity” (da tun) - a state of absolute universal equality, love, justice and public ownership of property. Family, state, private property, punishment and even national languages will be abolished or gradually disappear, as well as the “nine barriers” (state, class, racial, national, tribal, gender, religious, property and professional differences).
In 1919, during the May Fourth movement, along with socio-political struggles, demands were made to replace the old Confucian culture with a new, democratic and more advanced one. Bourgeois transformations in China dealt a strong blow to Confucian ideology and traditions, but nevertheless Confucianism continued and continues to play a significant role in the cultural and social life of the country.
→ Symbol of Confucianism
The ideals that illuminated my path and gave me courage and courage were kindness, beauty and truth. Without a sense of solidarity with those who share my convictions, without the pursuit of the ever-elusive objective in art and science, life would seem absolutely empty to me.
Confucianism is an ethical and political teaching that arose in Ancient China and had a huge influence on the development of spiritual culture, political life and social system of China for over two thousand years. The foundations of Confucianism were laid in the 6th century. BC e. Confucius and then developed by his followers Mencius, Xunzi and others. From its very inception, Confucianism, expressing the interests of part of the ruling class (hereditary aristocracy), was an active participant in the socio-political struggle. It called for strengthening the social order and established forms of government through strict adherence to ancient traditions, idealized by the Confucians, and certain principles of relationships between people in the family and society. Confucianism was considered the universal law of justice, the natural and justified existence of exploiters and exploited, in its terminology - people of mental and physical labor, with the former ruling, and the latter obeying them and supporting them with their labor. In Ancient China, there were different directions, between which there was a struggle, which was a reflection of the acute social and political struggle of various social forces of that time. In this regard, there are conflicting interpretations by Confucian thinkers of the main problems of Confucianism (about the concept of “heaven” and its role, about human nature, about the connection of ethical principles with law, etc.).
The main issues in Confucianism were ethics, morality and government. The basic principle of Confucian ethics is the concept of ren (“humanity”) as the highest law of relationships between people in society and family. Symbol of Confucianism. Ren is achieved through moral self-improvement based on compliance with li (“etiquette”) - norms of behavior based on deference and respect for elders in age and position, honor for parents, devotion to the sovereign, politeness, etc. According to Confucianism, only a select few can comprehend ren , so-called jun zi (“noble men”), i.e. representatives of the upper strata of society; common people - xiao ren (literally - “small people”) are not able to comprehend ren. This opposition of the “noble” to the commoners and the assertion of the superiority of the former over the latter, often found in Confucius and his followers, is a clear expression of the social orientation, the class character of Confucianism.
Confucianism paid great attention to the issues of the so-called. humane governance, based on the idea of deifying the power of the ruler, which existed before Confucianism, but was developed and substantiated by him. The sovereign was declared the “son of heaven” (tianzi), who ruled at the command of heaven and carried out his will. The power of the ruler recognized Confucianism as sacred, given from above, by heaven. Believing that “to govern is to correct,” Confucianism attached great importance to the teaching of zheng ming (about “correcting names”), which called for putting everyone in society in their place, strictly and accurately defining the duties of everyone, which was expressed in the words of Confucius: “Sovereign must be a sovereign, a subject must be a subject, a father must be a father, a son must be a son.” Confucianism called on sovereigns to rule the people not on the basis of laws and punishments, but with the help of virtue, an example of highly moral behavior, on the basis of customary law, and not burden the people with heavy taxes and duties. One of the most prominent followers of Confucius, Mencius (4-3 centuries BC), in his statements even admitted the idea that the people have the right to overthrow a cruel ruler by uprising. This idea was ultimately determined by the complexity of socio-political conditions, the presence of strong remnants of primitive communal relations, acute class struggle and strife between the kingdoms then existing in China. In such a situation, Confucianism, aimed at strengthening the existing social system, sometimes allowed criticism of individual rulers, contrasting them with the “wise” and “virtuous” sovereigns of distant times (i.e., tribal leaders) - Yao, Shun, Wen Wang, etc. In this connection lies the preaching of Confucianism's social utopia about the society of Da Tong ("Great Unification"), the "golden age" in the history of China, during which there were supposedly no wars and strife, there was equality of people and genuine care for the people.
Confucianism further evolved, borrowing many features of other ancient Chinese ideological movements, especially legalism (see Fajia), which was an objective necessity in the conditions of the creation of a centralized Han empire, the management of which required a flexible and ramified administrative apparatus. It could be headed by the Confucians, who mastered the science of management based on paternalism, traditions and mastered legalistic methods of management based on laws and punishments. The reformed Confucianism of the Han era, one of the main representatives of which was Dong Zhong-shu (2nd century BC), who combined Confucian ethics with natural philosophy and cosmological views of Taoism and the school of natural philosophers (Yin-Yang-Jia), strengthened its position in society of centralized despotism. In 136 BC e. under Emperor Wu Di it was proclaimed the official doctrine and after that remained the dominant ideology for over two thousand years (until the bourgeois Xinhai Revolution of 1911), supporting the existence of feudal-absolutist despotic power. Symbol of Confucianism. Religious-mystical and reactionary features are intensifying in Confucianism. The provisions about heaven as a predetermining divine force, about the dependence of society and man on the will of heaven, about the divine origin of the power of the sovereign - the “son of heaven”, about the loyalty of the subject to the sovereign, about the dominance of the “son of heaven” over all the peoples of the Universe - are brought to the fore. Thus, Confucianism as the dominant ideology, for centuries preaching the cult of the emperor as the executor of the “will of heaven,” instilled among the people fanatical devotion to the “son of heaven,” Sinocentrism, chauvinism and disdain for other peoples. Confucianism as an ethical-political and religious system penetrated into all pores of public life and for many centuries determined moral norms, family and social traditions, scientific and philosophical thought, preventing their further development and developing certain stereotypes in the minds of the people, especially among the intelligentsia. Confucianism strengthened even more after the intense struggle with Buddhism in the 7th and 8th centuries. A major role in this belonged to the famous writer and thinker Han Yu (768-824), who sharply criticized Buddhism and defended Confucianism.
The new stage in the development of Confucianism dates back to the Song era (960-1279) and is associated with the name of Zhu Xi (1130-1200) - a famous historian, philologist and philosopher, who is the creator of updated Confucianism, the philosophical system of Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism adopted and preserved the basic principles of ancient Confucianism, its reactionary provisions about the inviolability of social orders, about the natural nature of the division of people into higher and lower, noble and vile, about the dominant role of the “son of heaven” - the ruler of the Universe. Neo-Confucianism was also put at the service of the ruling class and officially recognized as the orthodox dominant ideology, which until modern times fettered and hampered the development of socio-political and philosophical thought, hindered the progress of science and technology, and contributed to the isolation of China from European civilization and its progressive scientific and technical thought , which was one of the factors that determined the relative backwardness of China in modern times. Neo-Confucianism played the same role as in China in Japan, Korea and Vietnam.
Bourgeois reformer Kang Yu-wei and his supporters in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. made an attempt, which turned out to be unsuccessful, to modernize Confucianism, which increasingly came into conflict with the changing conditions of social life in connection with the development of capitalist relations in the country. During the May 4 movement of 1919, when, along with the socio-political struggle, demands were made to replace the old obsolete culture with a new, democratic and more advanced one, Confucianism suffered a strong blow. Nevertheless, even after this it continued to play a significant role in the social life of China. During the period of the dominance of the Chiang Kai-shek Kuomintang (1927-49), the ideology of Confucianism was put at the service of the Kuomintang reaction. Even after the creation of the People's Republic of China, Confucianism continues to have some influence on certain segments of the country's population, contributing to the spread of the cult of personality and the revival of Sino-centrism and nationalism. Symbol of Confucianism
Passions are the enemies of peace, but without them there would be no art or sciences in this world, and everyone would be dozing naked on a pile of their own dung.
We are all smart when it comes to giving advice, but when it comes to avoiding mistakes, we are nothing more than children.
Menander.
Confucius died 350 years before Confucianism became a state ideology. At the end of the 3rd century. BC BC, when China was first unified by Emperor Qin Shih-huang, the followers of Confucius were subjected to severe persecution. Following the precepts of Shang Yang, who considered culture and its bearers - educated and intelligent people - a subversive element, Qin Shi-huang banned the study of ancient literature and philosophy and ordered the burning of all books owned by private individuals (with the exception of special literature on agriculture, medicine and fortune telling). These measures to eliminate humanitarian culture were accompanied by the execution of hundreds of the most prominent representatives of the then intelligentsia. But the attempt to create an empire on the monolithic foundation of general duping ended in failure: just a few years after the death of Qin Shi-huang, his kingdom fell under the blows of an uprising that swept the entire country. The emperors of the next dynasty, the Kan (206 BC -220 AD), taking into account the failure of their predecessor, decided not to fight the Confucians, but to come to an agreement with them. Emperor Wu Di (140-87 BC) proclaimed Confucianism as the state ideology and as such it lasted until 1911. But Confucianism, which became the dominant dogma of the Chinese Empire, differed significantly from the actual preaching of Confucius. To the ethical tenets of early Confucianism were added cosmological speculations going back to Taoism and some other naturalistic teachings, and the whole mixture was given the features of religion. If religion did not play a significant role in early Confucian thought, then a concept subsequently arose in which heaven figured as a Deity possessing a moral consciousness and closely monitoring everything that happens on Earth. A religious aura was also surrounded by the person of the emperor, the “son of Heaven,” who, being at the center of the cosmological trinity - Heaven, Earth and Man, connects them with each other, and, being the “executor of the will of Heaven, ensures with his fair management the strict sequence of natural phenomena.” While Confucius attached primary importance to the people in the state, in imperial Confucianism (the name this ideology received in literature) the ruler was recognized as the basis of the state. The ideal of a noble person has also transformed. The tendency that transformed him from a knight-errant of humanity into an exemplary official, whose main quality was his readiness for blind and unquestioning obedience to the instructions of his superiors, acquired dominant significance.
The feature of Confucianism turned out to be very important, which played a huge role in ensuring the stability of the Chinese Empire. We are talking about the Confucian thesis, according to which those who take part in government must be educated people. The proclamation of Confucianism as a state ideology was accompanied, according to sources, by the widespread development of education and the development of a system of examinations that those who aspired to occupy any significant official position had to pass.
Of course, we must not forget about the privileges that (especially at first) made it easier for the scions of noble families to enter the ranks of the bureaucracy, nor that the long-term study of Confucian icons required a lot of money, which, as a rule, one cannot raise to the common man. And yet the indisputable fact remains that already from the 2nd century. BC e. Chinese officials were recruited on the basis not so much of origin as of certain abilities. This ensured a high level of the ruling elite for antiquity and the Middle Ages. Examinations created a completely different opportunity for advancement for capable people from the lower classes. This is also evidenced by the Chinese fiction, one of whose favorite plots is the rapid rise of a poor but talented young man after passing exams.
The development of a system of examinations designed to recruit capable people into the ranks of the bureaucracy had major consequences for the fate of Chinese statehood and culture. It contributed to the cultural unification and unity of the country, because everyone who sought to take part in government was required to undergo the same course of training. This same uniformity became one of the reasons for intellectual stagnation. But something else is also important. Since this system opened the way to advancement for capable people, they became zealous champions of the existing order. This was a profound difference between the situation that developed in China, where social protest was completely excluded among the educated strata, from the situation in Europe, where an important point that pushed the best minds to criticize the existing system was the preservation until the 18th-19th centuries. aristocratic privileges. Moreover, the system of promoting capable people in China helped to ensure support for the existing system even by a certain part of the exploited lower classes, who considered this system to be basically fair and attributed its imperfections to the abuses of individual officials.
As a result, we can say that the philosophy of Confucianism is extremely complex and is still poorly developed. However, in the ideas of early Confucianism, researchers discover the origins of the Chinese humanistic tradition, which was continued in the works of a number of thinkers of the Middle Ages and Modern times.
On certain dates to make sacrifices, offer prayers, this was done, in addition, in extraordinary cases. The cult of ancestors, which occupies such an important place in Confucianism, it would seem, did not harmonize well with the Buddhist faith, in which it played no role. Nevertheless, it remained in full force... then on the peninsula, it soon became the state religion, which by no means abolished what Confucianism became so. And with the spread of Taoism, it was adopted by the authorities.
https://www.site/religion/12802
... (Alupka, Crimea). The palace and the surrounding park are literally saturated with Masonic, religious, mythological and esoteric symbolism. We managed to examine and capture a lot on film. Even despite the fact that from 250 rooms... there is a crucified ray." Massandra is an example of the esotericism of sources, making it possible to reveal the Masonic culture that was then widespread in the noble culture symbolism. In fact, the count's grandfather, father, uncle, and many other relatives were Freemasons." ...
https://www.site/journal/13037
In this case, fertility in the literal sense of the word is emphasized; it is expressed here most clearly in comparison with symbolism positions of other planets in this house. The challenge is to respond to sexual requests in an appropriate way without creating a trap... a prestidigitator, a scammer. Just make sure you know the differences between these creative states. Competition. Symbolism Neptune does not agree with the raw energies of competition. Refinement of sensations is the basis of your skills. Something inside you...
https://www.site/magic/13424
The sacred secrets of the universe contemplated and cognized by the priests were not fully expressed by them, but were recorded logically and mathematically in symbolism pyramids. The pyramid is a sign of eternity and wisdom, and the highest priestly wisdom came down to strict observance of the divine... . But, turning to historical architectural monuments, through the prism of linear measures, the general symbolism universal space and time. Esoteric logic “works” here: Holy Scripture requires sacred...
https://www.site/journal/13426
Already in the first centuries, the Chinese felt such an internal kinship with Buddhism that, along with Taoism and Confucianism, began to perceive it as a genuine expression of Chinese religiosity. Based on the historical sources available to us, we are not... the most outstanding disciple of Tao-an, took monasticism, but at the same time essentially remained an aristocrat (at first he adhered to Confucianism, then became interested in Taoism and eventually settled on Buddhism). Huiyuan was a brilliant popularizer of Buddhism. ...
https://www.site/religion/13887
Other parts of the texts were related to actual experiences in the process of dying, although they were colored by Christian symbolism. Of the experiences described there, the phenomena usually defined as an attack by Satan deserve special attention. They... are perceived as being inflicted by the terrifying goddess Kali, Shiva the destroyer, the Bacchantes or Ancient Egyptian Set. Symbolism the corresponding cultural context that arises in experiences can be very specific and detailed. Often nature...
https://www.site/psychology/14052
Philosophical Taoism was the reaction of educated lovers of Chinese antiquity to the development of statehood in China and new philosophical systems 54 types Confucianism who attach great importance to the normative regulation of life, management and law. Unlike Confucianism, which immediately took on a professional character due to its orientation towards public service, philosophical Taoism developed mainly as an amateur...
Time and place of origin: Confucianism arose as an ethical, socio-political doctrine during the Chunqiu period (722 BC - 481 BC) - a time of deep social and political upheaval in China. During the Han Dynasty, Confucianism became the official state ideology, and Confucian norms and values became generally accepted. In imperial China, Confucianism played the role of the main religion, the principle of organizing the state and society for over two thousand years in almost unchanged form, until the beginning of the 20th century, when the teaching was replaced by the “three principles of the people” of the Republic of China.
Reasons for its occurrence: Confucianism is one of the leading ideological movements in ancient China. A number of publications give a “compromise” definition of Confucianism as both a religion and an ethical and political teaching. Confucius was one of the first to become interested in human essence, meaning human life, the origins of human aspirations and desires. Trying to explain them, guided by his own experience, he proposed a number of interesting ideas. Confucius spent his entire life in search of that main thing for which a person lives. Confucius lived in an era of great social and political upheaval, when China was in a state of deep economic crisis. The power of the ruler weakened, although he was still considered the son of Heaven and retained the functions of the high priest. Patriarchal-tribal mores and principles of the functioning of society were destroyed, and the tribal aristocracy perished in the internecine war. It was replaced by a fundamentally new, centralized power of the rulers of individual kingdoms, who relied on the administrative-bureaucratic apparatus (formed by
lowly bureaucracy. Only in the first centuries AD
Confucianism truly becomes a religion, creates its own dogma, interpretation, turns into a cruel system of religious requirements, mandatory for everyone.
Founder of the religion: Confucius - Chinese sage. Born on September 22, 551 in a cave on the slope of a mud mountain in Changping County in eastern China in the Principality of Lu. The family belonged to an old aristocratic family, which by that time was almost bankrupt. Confucius' father Shulianghe ruled the Zou county in Lu, and at the time of the sage's birth he was 70 years old. At the age of three, Confucius was left without a father, and at the age of 17, without a mother. By that time, the family had nine daughters and a crippled boy. His name given at birth was Kun Qiu. Through the efforts of his admirers, the name Kun Qiu little by little was replaced by the honorary nickname Kung Fu-tzu, which means the Venerable Teacher Kun. Many centuries later, Jesuit missionaries who came to China and became acquainted with his teachings made the Chinese sage a property and European culture Latinizing his name - Confucius. In life, Confucius invariably refrained from four things: he did not indulge in empty thoughts; was not categorical in his judgments; did not show stubbornness; did not think about himself personally. Like Pythagoras and Socrates, Confucius taught orally and did not leave us a line. All we know are the records of his students: “Shijing (“Book of Songs”) and “Lunyu” (“Conversations and Sayings”). He had 3000 students, 72 of them were especially close, 12 were with him constantly. Confucius charged his listeners a modest fee, and subsequently began to live on the funds of several wealthy students who provided him with premises for a “school.” In 479, he interrupted his studies, feeling the end was approaching. In conversations with his disciple Tzu Kung, however, he kept returning to ancient times. He lamented again and again that “there was not a single ruler who wanted
become his student." At the end he exclaimed: “Who after my death
will he take the trouble to continue my teaching?” These were his last words.
Features of the creed; Creed The dogmatic system that arises in the process of such transformation usually exists in two forms - in the form of a detailed, logically solid and substantiated “Scripture” presentation (like the works of John of Damascus or Thomas Aquinas) and in the form of short theses for wide use, in which selected and the whole essence of dogmatic theology is presented in a concise form, everything that is necessary and sufficient for an adherent of a given religion to believe. In Christianity, such a symbol of faith was developed in the 2nd-4th centuries and was finally adopted by the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople (325, 381). In Confucianism (the doctrine of which is set forth in the “Si Shu” and “Wu Jing”, and most clearly and instructively in the “Li Ji”), brief and widespread statements of the doctrine, functionally close to the Christian creed, can be considered “Zhuzijiali” (“Domostroy”) Zhu Xi") or the commandments of the Qing Emperor Kangxi. Naturally, these symbols of faith fully reflected the differences in the orientation of these religions. The Christian creed is thoroughly theological, centered around the idea of atonement for the sins of mankind by Jesus Christ, the Confucian creed is purely moral commandments, and not as idealistic and rigoristic as the commandments of Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount, but very moderate and reasonable. The creed is a very important element of religious ideology. Recognition of it distinguishes believers from non-believers, and, since there is a deep and developed teaching behind it, confession of the symbol guarantees the believer going beyond the boundaries of this ideology. If a believer does not know the entire teaching, it is enough that he professes this symbol, and when he wishes to comprehend his worldview, the whole wealth of dogmatic constructions will open before him. He can rise from the lowest to higher levels ideologies
without going beyond it. This has its reverse, which is also very important.
for religion side - religion can include many different elements, including even those that objectively contradict its provisions. It is only necessary to somehow, at least externally, reconcile them with the basic tenets of dogma. Availability common symbol faith makes it possible for both people who know and understand dogma, and those who do not know it and actually have ideas that contradict it, to remain within the boundaries of a given religion. Rituals and the unity of the symbol unite both. Cult In parallel with the development of dogmatic metaphysics and the development of a symbol of faith, there usually occurs the formation of a cult, which often includes elements that are objectively contrary to this metaphysics. In Christianity, this is the process of the emergence, instead of the extremely primitive and poor means of emotional impact of the cult of ancient communities, of a complex system of church cult, which includes all kinds of elements that can influence the emotional sphere of the individual - the architecture of religious buildings, a developed and magnificent ritual (singing, music, elements theatrical performance), painting and sculpture of “sacred” images. But due to the great abstraction and rationalism of Confucian ideas about deity, the Confucian cult was never able to achieve the same power of emotional impact as the Christian cult. As a result, while Christianity was able to absorb folk cults and include them in its single, huge and multifaceted system, Confucianism was unable to do this and a lot of folk cults and superstitions remained outside the boundaries of this religion. But these cults left behind - a free popular reworking of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism - were imbued with Confucian ideas and formed, although more amorphous, but similar to the Christian structure. In these "lower" cults, especially within the framework of late medieval syncretism, the abstract Heaven turned into
heavenly emperor Yuhuang-Shangdi, his own Virgin Mary appeared - Guan-
yin, the unrecognizably sinicized Buddhist bodysattva Avalokiteshvara, and a huge number of patrons and chenghuangs (patrons) of cities. It is quite typical that the cheng-huangs often turned out to be deceased virtuous officials. The functions of the Cheng Huangs were similar to those of Christian saints. Both of them were intermediaries between the too great and therefore distant god, or Heaven, and people, as well as the ideal of the individual. But the ideal of personality, embodied in the European, Christian saint, was directly opposite to the Confucian one - not a virtuous official, but most often an ascetic monk.
Ritual specifics: Ritual practice is the rules for transmitting cultural experience from generation to generation. Rituals are a tradition that divides people into elders and younger ones, guaranteeing each person his place in society. GuYanwu writes not only about how neglect of tradition brings confusion to state affairs, but also about how the desire for normal life returns everything to normal. Justice is restored by the deep need of the human race to overcome barbarity, including the barbarity of the future. Temporary burials pacify irreconcilable enemies, forcing them to think about fate: “You only have fate, you shouldn’t worry about whether it’s a hungry year or a fruitful one, but stop there.” Ritual connects people, but it connects in such a way that, in relation to each typical relationship, it indicates the optimal distance that allows different individuals to communicate productively. Confucius understands philanthropy as reciprocity, equality in relationships. However, people are different both in natural qualities and social status. A problem arises: how to implement the principle of equality in relations between unequal people? The ritual is the answer to this puzzling question. It could be
briefly defined as the social proportionality of individuals. Very
It is important to understand the relationship between “zhen” and “li”. “Zhen” does not exist above or along with “li,” but only through “li.” But “li” also loses its moral quality without correlation with “zhen”. The ethics of Confucius affirms the humanism of concrete human relationships. It comes from the belief that human agreement is more important than abstract truths. “People with different principles cannot find a common language.” Therefore, there can be no higher principle than humanity, embodied in all the diversity of human situations. In the book “Lun Yu” we find the following remarkable fragment. “Tzu Kung (Disciple of Confucius) wanted to put an end to the custom of sacrificing a ram on the first day of the month. The teacher said: “Si (nickname of Tzu-gong)! You take care of the ram, and I take care of the ritual.” The ritual itself is a moral measure of behavior, since it ensures the harmonious existence of people and gives them common symbols. It cannot be destroyed based on abstract principles, even if such a principle is pity for animals. Of course, the ritual is mobile and changeable, but on its own basis and according to its own laws. In terms of content, the Confucian ritual rests on two foundations: filial piety (xiao) and correction of names (zheng ming). According to Confucius, the pattern and norm of decent behavior is set by antiquity. “I believe in antiquity and love it,” he said. A person's moral efforts should be aimed at rising to the level of the ideal past. This attitude does not simply mean that one is looking back.
Regions of distribution: The spread of Confucianism in Western Europe. In the middle of the 17th century, a fashion arose in Western Europe for everything Chinese, and for Eastern exoticism in general. This fashion was also accompanied by attempts to master Chinese philosophy, which they often began to talk about, sometimes in sublime and admiring tones. Published in 1687
Latin translation of "Lun Yu" by Confucius. The translation was prepared by the group
Jesuit scientists. At this time the Jesuits had numerous missions in China. One of the most famous Jesuit researchers in China, Matteo Ricci, tried to find a conceptual connection between Chinese spiritual teachings and Christianity. Perhaps his research program suffered from Eurocentrism, but the researcher was not ready to give up the idea that China could successfully develop without introducing Christian values. Leibniz also devoted a lot of time to the teachings of Confucius. In particular, he compares the philosophical positions of Confucius, Plato and Christian philosophy, concluding that the first principle of Confucianism, "Li" is Reason as the foundation.
Impact on Islam. Confucianism with its cult of state order was repeatedly introduced into the countries of Central Asia. This happened before the arrival of Islam here, when there was an exchange of merchants and Buddhist and Nestorian pilgrims. There was also interaction between the wars between Bactria, Sogd, the Western Turkic Khaganate, Uighuria and Imperial China. The norms of loyalty to tradition and ancestors, the norms of stability, which became the foundation of Chinese civilization, penetrated into the Islamic environment during the conquest of Uighuria and Northeast China.
History of spread: The state where Confucianism first arose was China, and it is with this strange that its development and spread are inextricably linked. Until the moment when China began to contact Western representatives, the ideology of Confucius underlay all political decisions. However, the name of the great philosopher became widespread only in the 16th century, when missionaries began to appear in China. After the death of the teacher, Confucianism acquired many new directions, which was facilitated by followers from China and a number of European countries. Subsequently, a number of directions adopted the general name
- Neo-Confucianism. Total development of Confucianism since its formation
before today took about 2500 years.
The role of Confucianism in the formation of the culture of the Chinese region: The Confucian centralized state, which existed through rent-taxes from peasants, did not encourage the excessive development of private land ownership. As soon as the strengthening of the private sector crossed acceptable boundaries, this led to a significant decrease in treasury revenues and debauchery of the entire administrative system. A crisis arose, and at this moment the Confucian thesis about the responsibility of emperors and their officials for bad governance began to take effect. The crisis was overcome, but more often than not the uprising that accompanied it scattered into dust everything that had been achieved by the private sector: what guarantee of the rights of private owners could be discussed in the days when the country was in the flames of war, and power was exercised by peasant leaders or foreign invaders who expropriated everyone and that's it? After the crisis, the central government, represented by the new emperor and his entourage, became stronger, and the private sector had to start all over again.
Confucianism played approximately the same role in social processes. The central government in China has always been opposed by various powerful clans and corporations - craft and trade associations, communities, sects, secret societies, etc., which to some extent neutralized and limited the omnipotence of the central administration.
They were based on the same Confucian principles of strict paternalism, iron discipline and strict ceremonial (despite the fact that many of these corporations, especially sects and secret societies, were most often Taoist-Buddhist rather than Confucian). Therefore, during periods of crises and uprisings, when central power weakened and actually came to naught, they played an important role both in performing the functions of local government and protecting elementary order, and as
local basis, on which the new government was relatively easily revived with
Confucianism. Finally, Confucianism also acted as a regulator in the country’s relationship with Heaven and, on behalf of Heaven, with the various tribes and peoples that inhabited the world. Confucianism supported and exalted the cult of the ruler, the emperor, the “sons of Heaven”, who ruled the Celestial Empire on behalf of the great Heaven, created back in the Yin-Zhou era. Over time, a genuine cult of the Celestial Empire, a middle state, was formed, which was considered as the center of the Universe, the pinnacle of world civilization, the center of truth, wisdom, knowledge and culture, the implementation of the sacred will of Heaven. The barbarian conquerors who found themselves on the imperial throne always had to - for lack of an alternative - accept the Confucian system of administration, and this seemed to confirm the concept of the eternity and perfection of Confucianism and the Chinese empire and Chinese civilization regulated by it.
Is Confucianism a religion? In the specific conditions of the Chinese empire, Confucianism played the role of the main religion and performed the functions of state ideology. Highlighted by him and carefully cultivated social ethics with this orientation towards the moral improvement of individuals within the framework of corporations and within the strictly fixed norms sanctified by the authority of antiquity, was, in essence, the equivalent of that blind and tinged with mysticism, sometimes even ecstasy, faith that lies at the basis of other religions. For more than two years, Confucianism shaped the minds and feelings of the Chinese, influenced their beliefs, psychology, behavior, thinking, speech, perception, their way of life and way of life. In this sense, Confucianism is not inferior to any of the great religions of the world, but in some ways it surpasses them. Confucianism noticeably colored the entire national culture of China and the national character of its population. It managed to become, at least for old China, indispensable.
Literature
1.Vasiliev V.P., Religions of the East. Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, St. Petersburg, 1973;
2. Polikarpov V. S. History of religions: Lectures and reader. M., 1997. Religions of the world / Ed. Ya. N. Shchapova. M., 1994.