Why did the good bourgeoisie like the ruthless teaching? How the “Pope of Geneva” taught the burghers to love God. During the Reformation, the Pope of Geneva was called who
After the military defeat of Zurich, the center of the reform movement in Switzerland moved to the southwestern part of the country, to the city of Geneva. At the beginning of the 16th century, progressive burgher circles were in power in Geneva. Geneva occupied a special position in the Swiss Union:
1) this is a French city, many immigrants from France lived here;
2) for several centuries Geneva was an imperial city;
3) in the 16th century, imperial freedoms were reduced - Geneva came under the influence of the bishop;
4) in the second third of the 16th century it became the center of Calvinism.
Who is John Calvin (1509-1564)?
John Calvin is a Latinized name from the French surname Covin. He was born in Picardy (Northern France) in the family of a lawyer. My father served as a lawyer for the local bishop in Noyon. The future reformer graduated from the University of Bourges and knew many languages (including Latin and Greek). T.N. Granovsky believed that few people of “strict, inexorable dialectics” emerged from Picardy (including the leaders of the French bourgeois revolution of the late 18th century). The national character of the Picardy is well shown in the novel by A. Dumas “The Three Musketeers”; the cunning Planchet, de Artagnan’s servant, was from Picardy.
Researchers believe that Calvin converted to Protestantism in 1534, although this date is in a certain sense arbitrary. The fact is that already in 1529, while listening to lectures in Paris on the history of law and theology, he attracted attention to the careless boldness with which he preached Protestant doctrine in Paris (at the university he received the nickname accusatives - “accusatory” case). After some time, Calvin was forced to flee Paris and visited many places. He spent some time in Ferrara (Northern Italy), and later met with many representatives of the French ruling house. Even “the king’s (Franz I) sister Margaret of Navarre did not refuse him her participation,” we read in Granovsky’s lectures.
In 1536, John Calvin arrived in Switzerland, and his main theological and philosophical work, “Instruction in the Christian Faith,” was published in Basel. In the same year, having gone to stay at the suggestion of his friend Farel in Geneva for one day, Calvin remains there for the rest of his life, although there were breaks.
In the early years (1536-1537) the city of Geneva was turbulent. Reformers were in power in Geneva at that time, but Geneva became the arena of political struggle between supporters of moderate burgher reform, of a mixed Lutheran-Zwinglian persuasion, on the one hand, and Anabaptists, on the other. Calvin, in his capacity as “lecturer of the Holy Scriptures,” intervened in the struggle on the side of the former. But he was not understood!
The Genevan burghers were dissatisfied with Calvin's theocratic ideas and expelled the restless Frenchman. In 1538-41. John Calvin spent in exile in Strasbourg, in 1541 he was returned to Geneva in triumph and finally led the new Protestant faith - Calvinism. Under pressure from Calvin, the Genevan magistrate approved a new church organization. The methods by which Calvinism was propagated were in the spirit of the Inquisition; the main method of the “Pope of Geneva” (Calvin’s nickname) was violence. Calvin achieved petty and captious supervision over citizens. All opponents of his teaching were subjected to expulsion, punishment, even the death penalty. In 1547, Protestants set a bad example for Catholics; J. Gruet was executed for heresy (he called Calvin a comedian who wants to take the place of the pope). 6 years later, in 1553, the Spanish doctor Miguel Servet was burned at the stake. This act of Calvin cannot be justified. In 1559, in order to export his teachings abroad, Calvin created a special academy in Geneva for the training of Calvinist priests.
In general, the activities of Calvin and his supporters contributed to the spread of Calvinism in France, England, the Netherlands, parts of Germany, Hungary, and Poland. Subsequently, Calvinism became the banner of the early bourgeois revolutions in the Netherlands and England.
What was the new creed? It was already noted above that Luther is primarily a theologian, Zwingli is a humanist. Calvin combines theology with politics. Some Russian historians believe that Calvin is a theocrat, and in his main work, “Instruction in the Christian Faith,” he did not put forward fundamentally new ideas, but only systematized the ideas of Luther, Zwingli and other reformers.
One can agree with the generally accepted position of Russian historiography that Calvinism, from the moment of its inception, most fully expressed the needs of the burghers in a cheap church. At the same time, he was deprived of the birthmarks of Lutheranism - moderation and compromise, as well as Zwingli's tolerance and general humanistic orientation. Calvinist communities are not only houses of worship, but also political clubs where the young, energetic bourgeoisie developed their political demands. In the future, they will be written on the banners of the first bourgeois revolutions.
Calvinism is based on two dogmas: the dogma of absolute predestination and the dogma of Divine non-interference in the laws of the world. Calvin's “absolute predestination” was based on Luther's “justification by faith” thesis and Zwinglian “I believe in order to know.” Both the famous Saxon and the Zurich resident developed the concept of Divine Providence. The absolute predestination of John Calvin is built on the basis of this concept. What was this dogma? According to absolute predestination, God predestined people even before the creation of the world: some to salvation, others to destruction; some - to heavenly bliss, others - to the eternal torment of hell. And this verdict of God is absolutely unchangeable. But! The most interesting! People do not know the will of God. Since no one knows where he will go after death, everyone is obliged to work patiently in order to prove worthy of their possible salvation, if it occurs.
However, here Calvin makes the first reservation: although a person does not know about his fate after death, but by certain signs, he can guess about it. Calvin says that good fortune in life is a sure sign that a person is predestined by God to salvation. A loser is a person from whom God has abandoned. Thus, with the dogma of predestination, Calvin concludes: “All wealth is good. You must work for God to get rich.” Thus, the young religion sanctified the affairs and aspirations of the no less young bourgeoisie.
For centuries, the Bible has preached an indisputable truth that suits ordinary people: “It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven.” Because of her, medieval moneybags, fearing death, bequeathed to the church everything they had accumulated during their lives. But! This happened earlier. With his first thesis, Calvin managed to drag a camel through the eye of a needle, and a rich man into the kingdom of heaven, i.e. paradise. Entrepreneurs and merchants willingly believed Calvin, because they felt themselves chosen by God. However, this teaching might not please the poor and unfortunate. Here the Genevan reformer makes a second reservation: the same road along which the rich walk is open to the poor man. If a poor man works not out of fear, but out of conscience, then he himself will prosper and become rich. If he cannot become rich and God does not mark him in this worldly life, then he will reward him at least a little in the afterlife. This clause was intended to increase the zeal and obedience of the suffering. And she turned out to be much more durable than Calvin himself.
In the spirit of the first dogma, Calvin preached “secular asceticism,” extreme frugality bordering on hoarding, and a reduction in the number of religious holidays and weekends. Catholics were forbidden to work 120 days a year, that’s how much they occupied Religious holidays and Sundays. Calvin, besides Sundays, has only six holidays a year. During the period of primitive accumulation, when the size of capital was relatively small, and the main income depended on the speed of profit turnover, was it before the holidays? Maximum capitalization of surplus value and minimum personal expenses in the spirit of early capitalism. And the proverb “live poor, but die rich” is in the spirit of Calvin and Calvinism.
The second thesis is about “divine non-interference in the laws of the world”, i.e. into earthly life. What does it mean? This meant that the life of society follows earthly laws and God does not directly and directly interfere in this life, so a person can decide, do, create a lot himself. Man is a creator, although he is not free of divine predestination. As we see, this position is very contradictory. The second thesis complemented and clarified the first rather than being independent. So, Calvin wrote, a merchant, his life, his work is a worldly calling (and not a divine one), it is a worldly duty. But if he refuses his worldly duty and does not take advantage of his opportunities to get rich, then he commits a sin. (There are already reservations here). In the light of the principles of Calvinism, nobility of origin, nobility, titles - everything lost its meaning. The main thing remained only a person’s wealth - his actions, his work to increase his fortune, and whether he was a prince or a slave - it did not matter.
Thus, the young bourgeoisie received justification for its rights to a leading economic and political position in society. And not only the bourgeoisie. Let us not follow a rigid Marxist scheme. God pleases any person who works. You need to treat your work, your profession, as a calling. Max Weber believed that this position of the Protestant work ethic was already found in Luther, but Calvin supplemented and clarified it.
Calvin is not only an ideologist, but also a politician. Since 1541, in Geneva, under his leadership, the entire life and way of life of the townspeople has been rebuilt. The rule of life for Genevans was the call: “pray and work.” Calvin's followers declared war on the theater, holidays, fiction, art. They wore dark clothes and avoided jewelry. One of the English Puritan Calvinists wrote that “singing and dancing is a step on the path to the abyss of hell.”
All the prescriptions of Calvinism were vigilantly followed by the church created by the reformer. What kind of church is John Calvin? At first, the Genevan reformer did not want to create a special church organization, but the fight against the Catholic opposition, as well as the fear of the Anabaptists, forced Calvin to create a church. At the same time, the great reformer sought to deprive the common man, the ordinary person, of any right to his own opinion. “Better is the ignorance of a believer than the insolence of a wise man,” the great reformer believed.
Formally, the church created by Calvin was built on republican principles and had certain features of “democratic centralism.” Let's see what its structure looked like?
According to the “Church Establishments”, preachers, teachers, elders (elders) and deacons were supposed to manage church affairs. The deacons were in charge of the charitable part. The main role in church administration belonged to preachers. They were to “proclaim the word of God, teach, exhort the people, distribute the sacrament, and, together with the elders, inflict church punishments.” The preacher was represented to the city council by the college of preachers (congregation) and was a person of clergy. The council had the right to approve or reject the choice of clergy. Further, the church community could (in theory) disagree with one or another candidate, but in practice it all came down to simple approval. Calvin simply would not have allowed it to be any other way.
The most important element of Calvin's institutions was the consistory, or college of elders. It was an institution both secular and spiritual, something between an inquisitorial tribunal and a judicial body, vividly embodying Calvin's theory of the close connection between church and state. It included preachers and elders (12 people). The elders were secular people and were elected from among the members of the small city council. If any misunderstandings arose regarding the dogmas of Calvinism, then preachers gathered at their congresses and meetings. These congresses were first called congregations, later synods, and consultations on the dogmatics of Calvinism were held here. Such a church organization had one advantage - it was really cheap. The “republican principle” and the so-called “democratic centralism” evolved into the formal right to freely choose a pastor and the most severe discipline and unquestioning subordination of lower church structures to higher ones. The great Voltaire spoke about this with mockery: “Calvin opened the doors of the monasteries not in order to drive the monks out of there, but in order to drive the whole world in.” Geneva in Calvin's time truly resembled a monastery ruled by a despotic reformer. It was not for nothing that the French nicknamed Calvin the “Pope of Geneva.” Just like the Pope, Calvin did not recognize the views of others and was intolerant of dissent. Hence, his reformist teaching had many counter-reformation consequences.
This was reflected in the political views of the Genevan. How did he imagine the optimal political system? Calvin believed that “the state is as necessary to man as air.” What forms of state did Western Europe know during the Reformation? There are few of them: monarchy and republic. For a long time, Calvin, a Frenchman by nationality, hoped that the French king would support the Huguenots (French Calvinists) against the Catholics. When his hopes were not justified, Calvin condemns the monarchy, calling it tyranny. He even believed that the tyrant and his government would be punished by God, which contradicted his second thesis about divine non-interference in earthly affairs. The choice is small; the republican system remains. But a republic presupposes the presence of democratic bodies. John Calvin had a negative attitude towards democracy: an ignorant crowd is not capable of intelligently governing the state. Therefore, it is best to entrust management to a small group of selected and enlightened people. Who were they chosen by? Probably the aristocracy. This means that Calvin gives preference to a republic, an aristocratic republic. Actually, political power in Geneva was built on these principles.
A significant part of the Swiss population sincerely accepted the ideas of the Reformation. Zurich and Geneva became the centers of the reform movement.
Humanist, priest and itinerant preacher Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) adapted Luther's ideas to the interests of the Swiss urban cantons. In 1523, the Zurich city council supported Zwingli's program of church reforms. The Holy Scripture was recognized as the main source of divine truth. Icons and holy relics were removed from churches, and the church hierarchy and celibacy were abolished. The main sign of piety, according to Zwingli, is great work. The Reformer taught that everything that people possess is the grace of God. Only Sunday was considered a non-working day, which should be dedicated to pious prayers. The ideas of Zwinglianism became widespread in some Swiss cantons and other German principalities. During the armed struggle for his ideas, Zwingli died.
A native of France, John Calvin (1509-1564) became the founder of Calvinism - one of the most radical movements of Protestantism. Being a supporter of the reformation ideas of Luther and Zwingli, John Calvin experienced persecution in his homeland and fled to Switzerland. His main work, “A Parting Guide to the Christian Faith,” was published here. In 1536, the magistrate of Geneva invited him to the city to preach.
What ideas of Calvin interested the residents of Geneva?
John Calvin put forward the idea of "divine predestination." In his opinion, the Lord pre-assigned the soul of each person to bliss in heaven or eternal torment in hell. This decision is unshakable and absolute. No amount of thoughts or “good deeds” can change the will of the Lord. Only an active life “for the glory of God,” success in business (craft, trade, agriculture) testify to the chosenness of the soul for salvation, Calvin argued.
Fulfilling the mission of “minister of God,” Calvin radically changed life in the city. The bishop was expelled from Geneva, the monasteries were closed, and all church property was confiscated. Celebrations, games and dancing were banned in the city. Excessive food and clothing was also condemned. Residents of the city, proving their “chosenness,” had to devote all their time to work and prayer. The behavior of the townspeople was monitored by special pastors (mentors in the Word of God) and elders. The city government encouraged frugality and modesty in everyday life. Private property was proclaimed an unshakable “God’s gift.”
For violation of the procedure established by Calvin, fines and other punishments were imposed. Mercenary work, as an activity undesirable by God, was prohibited. Any dissent was persecuted. During Calvin's reign in Geneva, 58 people were sentenced to death. The freethinker and outstanding physician Miguel Servetus (1511 -1553) belonged to them. He fled to Switzerland from Catholic persecution, but in Geneva, at the request of Calvin, he was sentenced to be burned at the stake. Calvin's power and authority in the city was so great that he was called the "Pope of Geneva."
John Calvin(French Jean Calvin, Middle French Jean Cauvin, Latin Ioannes Calvinus; July 10, 1509, Noyon - May 27, 1564, Geneva) - French theologian, church reformer, founder of Calvinism.
Birth and childhood
John Calvin was born on July 10, 1509 in the city of Noyon in the French province of Picardy. At the age of 14, he was sent by his father, lawyer Gerard Cauvin, to the University of Paris to study humanities and law.
Education
In Paris he studied dialectics. He owned (?) a church parish, where at the age of 18 he preached. On the advice of his father, he returned to Paris and began studying to become a lawyer. From Paris, Jean moved to Orleans, where he worked under the guidance of the famous lawyer Pierre Stella, and then moved to Bourges, where the Milanese lawyer Alziati lectured at the University of Bourges. Under Alziati's guidance he studied Roman law. He began to study the humanities with Melchior Volmar. After the death of his father, he quits practicing law. Wolmar advised Calvin to study theology.
Calvin studies the Bible and the works of the reformers, including Martin Luther. Calvin does not leave the Catholic Church, he preaches the ideas of cleansing the church. He completed a course of science with a licentiate degree. In the summer of 1531 he left for Paris, where he continued his independent education. He received insignificant income from two church parishes. In the spring of 1532, he published his first scientific work at his own expense - a commentary on Seneca’s treatise “On Meekness.” In 1532 he received his doctorate in Orleans.
Protestant
In the second half of 1532 he became a Protestant. Calvin met the merchant Etienne Delaforget, whose shop was used for Protestant meetings. Calvin preaches in the shop.
In October 1533, Calvin wrote a speech “On Christian Philosophy” for Nicolas Cope, the rector of the university. After making a speech, the rector was forced to flee to Basel. Prosecution was also launched against Calvin, as the author of the speech, and he left Paris in peasant clothes. Under a false name he was hiding in the south of France. In May 1534 he abandoned his parishes. For some time he lived at the court of Margaret of Navarre. He wrote his first theological work, “The Dream of Souls.” Calvin planned to return to Paris, but after a scandal involving the spread of Protestant propaganda in royal palace On January 29, 1535, six Protestants were burned in Paris. Calvin finally leaves France.
In Basel
Calvin settles in Basel, where many French emigrants lived. Lives under someone else's name. He takes part in the translation of the Bible into French and completes his work “Instruction in the Christian Faith.”
"Instruction in the Christian Faith" was first published in 1536 in Basel. The main ideas set out in the essay: each church community must enjoy self-government in matters of faith, independently organize its own church administration, and protect its faith.
In the spring of 1536, Calvin visited the city of Ferrara and lived at the court of the Duchess of Ferrara Rene, daughter of King Louis XII. Calvin managed to persuade the duchess to the Reformation; their correspondence continued until his death. From Italy, Calvin returned to Noyon and plans to move to Basel. Because of the war I went to Basel via Geneva.
In Geneva
In Geneva, secular and spiritual power was concentrated in the hands of the bishop. The bishop was elected by the cathedral chapter. Subordinate to the bishop was the Council, also elected from the members of the cathedral chapter. The court was subordinate to the council. Executive power belonged to the Count of Savoy (later Duke). The city community enjoyed broad rights of self-government.
The city was a major trading center that attracted a large number of foreigners. Since October 1532, the reformer Guillaume Farel was active in Geneva. In 1536, Geneva achieved independence on the condition of maintaining neutrality. Since 1535, Protestantism has been recognized as the dominant religion in Geneva, and St. Peter's Basilica has changed from Catholic to Reformed.
In July 1536, Calvin stayed one night at an inn in Geneva. Old Parisian friends of Calvin informed G. Farel that the author of the “Instructions on the Christian Faith” had appeared in the city. Farel asks Calvin to stay in the city and take part in organizing a new church. Calvin leaves for Basel, but returns to Geneva at the end of August.
Calvin writes the Catechism, a summary of his views on the Reformation. In 1537, the Catechism was unanimously adopted by the city council, and the citizens of Geneva began to swear an oath to the new formula of faith. Strict orders are established in the city, and opposition appears between Calvin and the reformers.
On February 3, 1538, elections for a new council took place; got into the council big number opponents of the reformation. On April 23, the General Assembly demands the expulsion of Calvin and Farel from Geneva within 3 days. Calvin and Farel leave for Bern and speak at the Swiss Synod in Zurich. Bern tried unsuccessfully to persuade the Geneva council to return the preachers. Calvin and Farel decide to go to Basel. Farel was invited to preach in Neuchâtel, and Calvin to Strasbourg.
In Strasbourg
In Strasbourg, Calvin was appointed lecturer at the academy and preacher at the French Church of St. Nicholas. Many listeners from France and England came to Calvin's lectures. In Strasbourg, as in Geneva, Calvin again tried to establish strict church orders. In Strasbourg, Calvin became closely acquainted with German theologians.
In 1539, the second edition of the Institutes of the Christian Faith, an interpretation of the Epistle to the Romans, and a Small Treatise on the Holy Communion were published. In the summer of 1539, Calvin accepted Strasbourg citizenship by enrolling in a tailor's workshop. In September 1540, Calvin married the widow Idelette Storder.
In Calvin's absence, the Catholic Church attempted to regain its influence in Geneva, and Calvin's political opponents were executed or died.
On September 21, 1540, the council of Geneva decides to ask Calvin to return to Geneva. The council writes several letters to Calvin, sends delegates, and in the summer of 1541 Calvin decides to return to Geneva and returns to the city on September 13.
Calvin's ideas
If Martin Luther began the Protestant Reformation of the church on the principle of “remove from the church everything that clearly contradicts the Bible,” then Calvin went further - he removed from the church everything that is not required in the Bible. The Protestant Reformation of the church according to Calvin is characterized by a tendency towards rationalism and often a distrust of mysticism. The central doctrine of Calvinism, from which all other doctrines rationally follow, is the sovereignty of God, i.e. supreme power God in everything.
From Calvin's point of view, it does not depend on a person whether to accept the gift of grace or resist it, since this is done against his will. Probably, from Luther’s premises he concluded that since some accept faith and find it in their souls, while others turn out to have no faith, then it follows that some are predestined from eternity by God to destruction, and others from eternity by God predestined for salvation. This is the doctrine of the unconditional predestination of some to destruction, and others to salvation.
Predestination, according to this teaching, is accomplished in the Council of God, on the paths of God's Providence, regardless of the will of a person, his way of thinking and life.
Calvin's reforms
In Geneva, Calvin presented a draft charter of the church, which was approved on November 20 by the General Assembly of Citizens. The charter provided for the election of 12 elders who were supposed to oversee the lives of community members. Judicial and supervisory power was concentrated in the hands of the elders. The entire government structure of Geneva acquired a strict religious character. Gradually, all city power was concentrated in a small council, over which Calvin had unlimited influence.
The death penalty was widely used. In 1546 alone, 58 death sentences and 76 decrees of expulsion from the city were passed in Geneva. The most famous act of reprisal against undesirables is the execution of the anti-Trinitarian Miguel Servetus.
In 1555, Calvin's last opponents, the Libertines, were defeated. During Calvin's life in Geneva, a regime resembling a theocratic dictatorship was gradually established in the city. That’s what they called him - “The Pope of Geneva.” However, the organization Calvinist Church retained a relatively democratic character.
Calvin, despite the idea that a wealthy person was pleasing to God, did not consider it worthy to emphasize his prosperity. He extended this requirement to the entire flock. Gradually, not a single theater remained in Geneva, mirrors were broken as unnecessary, elegant hairstyles were subject to general obstruction.
Instruction in the Christian Faith, Geneva, 1559
Geneva became the center of the Reformation. Calvin's reform ideas not only became widespread in Switzerland, but soon became popular in many countries around the world. In 1559, Calvin opened the Geneva Academy, a higher theological institution for the training of preachers. Calvin is active in church activities. He corresponds with European aristocrats, continues to lecture and preach. On February 6, 1564, Calvin was unable to complete his lecture due to illness.
John Calvin died on May 27, 1564 at 8 pm. He was buried without ceremony, without a gravestone. Soon his burial place was lost.
After the death of Calvin, Theodore Beza became the elder of the Geneva churches.
Essays
Calvin left a large number of works: commentaries on almost all books of the Bible, polemical works, political pamphlets and scientific and theological treatises. A large number of sermons were published and recorded by followers. About 3 thousand handwritten sermons and lectures are kept in libraries in Switzerland. About 1,300 letters on various topics are known. Most of the letters are addressed to G. Farel. Many books were dedicated to the rulers of states, which was a reason to start relationships. For example, Calvin dedicated his commentary on the apostles to the Danish king Christian, and his commentary on the 12 minor prophets dedicated to Gustav Vasa of Sweden. And at the beginning of his opus magnum - his main work - “Instruction in the Christian Faith”, the reformer wrote an appeal to the King of France, Francis I.
The idea of divine predestination occupied a special place in Calvin's teaching.
Influence of Calvin's ideas
Calvin's ideas laid the foundation for the widespread development of individualism and contributed to the acquisition of political independence in various countries:
- Liberation of the Netherlands from the rule of Philip II
- The National Presbyterian Church of Scotland was founded by Calvin's disciple John Knox.
- English revolution of the 17th century.
In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland, Calvin corresponded with adherents of the Reformation, including Prince Radziwill and the Krakow voivode Tarnowski. Calvin offered King Sigismund II Augustus to become the head of the Reformation. In England, Calvin corresponded with the Duke of Somerset, the regent and tutor of Edward VI, as well as with Archbishop Cranmer.
Literature
- Calvin, Jean // encyclopedic Dictionary Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg, 1890-1907.
- John Calvin. Instruction in the Christian Faith. Full text
- Vipper R. Yu. Church and state in Geneva in the era of Calvinism. - St. Petersburg, 1893.
- Weber M. Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism // Weber M. Selected works. - M., 1991. - P. 61-272.
- Bouswa W. J. John Calvin. A sixteenth-century portrait. - Cambridge, 1984.
- Pavlenkov F. Ovchinnikov V. Biographical library of F. Pavlenkov: Life of remarkable people: In 3 volumes - M.: Olma. - ISBN 5224031214
- D. B. Porozovskaya. Johann Calvin. His life and reform activities. - St. Petersburg: Printing house Yu. N. Erlich, 1891.
1541 John Calvin returns to Geneva, where, after much debate, his project on church reorganization was accepted, albeit with restrictions, but in fact reforms were carried out in many areas of the urban structure...
“This project included the installation of four church ranks: pastors, doctors for teaching at school; elders for moral supervision of citizens and deacons for various charitable works.
At the request of Calvin, a consistory was created - something between the tribunal of the Inquisition and secular court. The consistory dealt with particularly important offenses against morality and deviations from the true faith. In less serious cases, pastors and elders limited themselves to private suggestion.
The houses of the townspeople began to be frequently searched, and woe to those who were found with an embroidered cap, a lace collar, jewelry or books of dubious content. After nine o'clock in the evening, no one had the right to go outside without special permission from the city authorities - they had to go to bed in order to start work early in the morning.
All decorations, symbols and ceremonies were eliminated from church life. Such were canceled church holidays, like Christmas, Circumcision, Annunciation, Ascension, the only one left was Easter (Resurrection of Christ). Only one day of the week was left for rest - Sunday, but the townspeople had to spend this entire day only in church.
In 1543, the third edition of the “Instructions in the Christian Faith” was published, where a detailed program of Calvin’s reformation of the church and lifestyle of the townspeople was recorded.
In it, Calvin equated church pastors with prophets and apostles: pastors were to “proclaim the word of God, teach, exhort the people, distribute the sacrament, and, together with the elders, inflict ecclesiastical punishments.” Condescension towards a sinner was categorically forbidden to a pastor, for he is not only a proclaimer of the truth, but also its defender, an “avenger” for insults inflicted on the name of God.
The community must take care of the material support of pastors. Calvin did not demand evangelical poverty from pastors and did not forbid them to take care of increasing their wealth, if this did not contradict strict morality. In his sermons and at meetings of the council of magistrates, Calvin even insisted on the return to pastors of church property taken from Catholics.
Although Calvin held a modest position as a government advisor in Geneva, his influence on the day-to-day affairs of the city was extraordinary. The laws adopted at his insistence were intended to make Geneva a prototype of the “city of God,” a citadel of Protestantism. During the years 1541-1564, Calvin virtually ruled the city alone. It was not for nothing that he was called the “Pope of Geneva,” and over time, Geneva itself, according to Calvin’s supporters, was supposed to become “Protestant Rome.”
Here Calvin was engaged in diplomatic correspondence, editing political, judicial and police legislation and, naturally, preached in church every Sunday. At the beginning of 1543, a commission under the leadership of Calvin carried out a large number of events in the city: certain frameworks were established for the activities of various government bodies, and the responsibilities of officials were clearly defined. Under his leadership, judicial records management was developed to the smallest detail. Calvin wrote detailed instructions for caretakers of buildings, for the fire brigade, and even rules for night watchmen. Almost every day he appeared before the city council with his countless reports, reports and notices.
The magistrate's reforms prohibited dancing, theatrical performances, and gambling in the city. In 1546, a number of senior city officials were convicted for participating in dances, including the captain general and the first syndic. The unfortunate ones got off lightly; they listened to a stern admonition and brought public repentance for their sin. Long prison sentences were imposed for uttering blasphemies, curses, and other foul language. Not only any entertainment was strictly prohibited, but also “inappropriately bright” clothing and loud laughter. As one of Calvin’s admirers wrote, his laws “were written in blood and fire.”
It is hardly possible to find another state in that period where in such a short period of time (from 1542 to 1546) 58 death sentences and 76 decrees of expulsion were passed.
The cruelty that characterized the legal proceedings under Calvin was absolutely terrifying. Torture was a necessary part of any interrogation. Moreover, the accused was tortured until he admitted the charges, often of a crime he had not committed. In just a few months of 1545 alone, 34 people died from torture during the investigation, without ever reaching the court’s decision. Children were forced to testify against their parents. A simple suspicion from a neighbor was enough not only for an arrest, but also for a conviction.
The tireless Calvin, who himself worked from morning until late at night, demanded the same from others. No one in Geneva had the right to sit back. All beggars were expelled from the city. At the same time, Calvin opposed excessive enrichment. He once said that the people must be kept in poverty, otherwise they will cease to be obedient to the will of God.
Such asceticism, when the townspeople had only two rights left - to work and to pray - could not but cause resistance. Opposition sentiments began to grow, and not only among the townspeople, but also in the city magistrate. In 1547, a strong party dissatisfied with Calvin’s reforms (“Perrinists”) was formed, which sought to limit his influence and subordinate the consistory and the college of pastors to the city magistrate. Church excommunication, which at that time was perceived as the separation of a person from God, was particularly attacked by the Perrinists. Pastors were often insulted on the streets, and many prohibitions were defiantly violated. But soon an incident occurred that helped Calvin defeat the growing influence of the Perrinists.
In 1553, by the verdict of the Geneva consistory, the Spanish theologian, philosopher and scientist was executed for heretical views. Miguel Servet. The Servetus case is considered by many historians as the "moral impasse of the Reformation" - first The Protestant Church imposed a death sentence for dissent. The public burning of Servetus caused the Perrinists to subside. Soon after this, the ideological opposition was completely defeated. Calvin's supporters held several extremely biased religious and political trials, which cost the lives of many of his irreconcilable opponents. By 1555, the opposition was completely defeated. - Over the years, Geneva has become one of the largest centers of Protestantism and European culture. Many printing houses and bookstores opened in the city. In 1559, on the initiative of Calvin, the Geneva Christian College was transformed into an academy, the main goal of which was to prepare educated Protestant clergy (naturally, according to Calvin’s program). Geneva became the center of the missionary movement and began to acquire a reputation as the “holy city” and “evangelical Rome.”
In 1559, Calvin took Genevan citizenship. He handed over the internal affairs of the city to his like-minded people and, dreaming of spreading his ideas throughout Europe, entered the international arena. Calvin conducted extensive correspondence with theologians and royalty of many European countries and over time became one of the largest European figures.
For more than 20 years he regularly gave theological lectures, commented on individual books of the Bible and gave sermons. The Geneva and Zurich libraries contain about 3 thousand of his handwritten sermons and lectures. Calvin's work ethic was incredible. In one of his letters to Farel, he describes one of his working days: “Really, I won’t remember such hard work for a long time - 20 pages of proofreading, my lectures, a sermon, 4 messages, reconciliation of warring parties. I hope you will forgive me if I am brief..."
Continuous hard work undermined his health. In recent years, he was often ill - fever, migraine, shortness of breath, gout... Calvin died at 8 pm on May 27, 1564. He was buried, according to him at will, “in the usual way,” without any ceremony, without a monument, even without an inscription on the grave. Very soon the location of the grave of the great Genevan reformer was forgotten.”
Truth N.A., One hundred great rebels and rebels, M., “Veche”, 2006, p. 98-101.
CALVIN Jean (Calvin, romanized form Calvinus, French Cauvin, Coven) (July 10, 1509, Noyon, France - May 27, 1564, Geneva), French theologian, one of the leaders of the Reformation, founder of Calvinism. Calvin's main work is “Instruction in the Christian Faith.” Having become the de facto dictator of Geneva in 1541, Calvin turned it into one of the centers of the Reformation. He was distinguished by extreme religious intolerance.
Joining Protestantism
Calvin's father served as steward at the court of the local bishop. In 1523 he sent his son to Paris to study theology. Jean studied at Montagu College, like Loyola, then studied law at Bourges and Orleans. Calvin knew Latin, Ancient Greek and Hebrew perfectly well, and read the Bible in the original. In his youth, he shared the ideas of Christian humanism and was close in views to Lefebvre d'Etaple. In 1532, his first work was published - a commentary on Seneca's work “On Condescension.”
During these same years, Calvin became acquainted with the teachings. There is no exact information about when Calvin converted to Protestantism. But in 1533, due to the intensified persecution of dissent in France, he had to leave Paris.
Calvin settled in the north of Switzerland - in Basel, a Protestant city whose residents showed tolerance towards representatives of other faiths. He taught theology and wrote a lot, in particular, the preface to the French translation of the Bible. At this time, the first edition of his main work, “Establishments of the Christian Faith” (1536), was published - a systematic summary of Protestant doctrine. In 1536, Guillaume Farel, leader of the Genevan Reformation, persuades Calvin to take part in the religious renewal of Geneva.
Reformation in Geneva
The reformation movement in Geneva was closely intertwined with the struggle for independence from the Duke of Savoy. To a large extent, the townspeople adopted Protestantism for political reasons, hoping for military assistance from the Protestant cities of Northern Switzerland. Calvin launched energetic Protestant propaganda in the city and proposed introducing harsh regulations on church discipline and morality of the citizens in Geneva, which met resistance from the city council, which exercised control over the church and officials. The Genevans saw in Calvin and Farel primarily French fugitives and did not want to exchange the power of the Duke of Savoy for the power of other strangers. The Geneva City Council exercised its right of expulsion and in 1538 expelled Calvin and Farel from Geneva.
Calvin spent 1538-1541 in Protestant Strasbourg, where he became a pastor in a church for French Protestant emigrants. At this time, his commentaries on the Epistle to the Romans by the Apostle Paul were published. In 1540, Calvin married Idelette de Bure, the widow of an Anabaptist convert by him, and three of their children died in infancy.
Meanwhile, the ideas preached by Calvin in Geneva won the sympathy of an increasing number of citizens. They asked for their spiritual teacher come back. In September 1541, Calvin again came to Geneva, although in the city there was a strong opposition group to Calvin, the so-called libertines. Calvin lived in Geneva until the end of his life and founded a new direction in Protestantism - Calvinism.
Calvinism
Under Calvin's influence, the city council adopted his "Ecclesiastical Ordinances" - a new form of church organization, which, with some variations, was adopted by Calvinist communities in other countries. Like Luther, Calvin denied the hierarchical structure of the church and its subordination to the pope. The Geneva church was headed by a consistory, which actually subjugated secular power. The decisions of the consistory took the form of state laws, the implementation of which was ensured by secular authorities. The secular government itself, according to Calvinist doctrine, has the right to exist only insofar as it fulfills the instructions of the church.
In Geneva, Calvin held the humble post of government adviser, but his influence on the day-to-day affairs of the city was extraordinary. The laws adopted at the insistence of Calvin were intended to make Geneva a prototype of the “city of God,” a citadel of Protestantism, and Calvin’s like-minded people perceived it that way. It was not for nothing that Calvin was nicknamed the “Pope of Geneva” - Geneva was supposed to become Protestant Rome. In particular, this is why Calvin called for strict monitoring of cleanliness and order in Geneva - it should have become a model for other cities in everything.
Calvin considered the task of the church to be the religious education of all citizens, especially children. To accomplish this task, Calvin carried out a number of right-wing reforms to establish “worldly asceticism.” The pompous Catholic cult was abolished, and strict administrative measures were taken aimed at strengthening morality and against “Roman Catholic superstitions.” Petty and captious supervision was established over all citizens. Attendance at church services became mandatory; entertainment, dancing, bright clothes, and loud laughter were prohibited.
Such severity could not but cause resistance. The dissatisfied supported the libertines, with whom Calvin fought for many years. Being a man of extraordinary talent, who knew how to attract people to himself and infect them with his faith, Calvin was distinguished by a heavy, domineering character. He was extremely intolerant of both Catholics and representatives of other reform movements. Calvin was especially hated by the Anabaptists, whom he accused of atheism. At his insistence, opponents of his teaching were subjected to expulsion and even death penalty.
In 1553, by the verdict of the Geneva consistory, M. Servet was executed for heretical views. The Servetus case is considered by many historians as the “moral impasse of the Reformation,” because it was the first time that the Protestant Church imposed the death penalty for dissent. By 1555, Calvin's struggle with the libertines was over. He entered the international arena, conducted extensive correspondence with theologians of many European countries, and founded the Geneva Academy, which was supposed to train theologians and civil servants.
In theology, Calvin developed the doctrine of unconditional predestination. According to him, God has absolute freedom, which is higher than human justice, and therefore no one can judge the decisions of the Almighty. The infinite will of God predestines believers to salvation and unbelievers to destruction. The gift of faith is given by God according to his will. A person cannot know whether he is chosen or not, but he is obliged to tirelessly seek God, build his life strictly on the basis of the Holy Scriptures and try to realize his calling. Daily work, according to Calvin, is a form of service to God.