The father of modern cultural studies of the Age of Enlightenment. Features of the culture of the era of enlightenment
Introduction:
Humanity has its own biography: infancy, adolescence and maturity. Art is developing in the same way. First one period passes, then another; culture, just like a person, goes through all these time periods, constantly improving. Depending on a particular situation in the world, art either experiences its heyday or simply becomes useless to anyone. For example, the Stone Age was replaced by the ancient era, then the Middle Ages. Culture develops in leaps and bounds: sometimes there is rapid growth, sometimes there is a sharp decline. But recessions lead to prosperity, which means they are also needed. They enable humanity to comprehend all its mistakes and causes. And when people comprehend all the mistakes and reasons, prosperity begins. So it was with the Age of Enlightenment.
Goals and objectives: Consider how the culture of European countries developed in the 18th century.
Meet outstanding educators
Explore major works of art during the Enlightenment
Architecture
The Age of Enlightenment, its characteristic features and development features in England, France, Germany
Main representatives.
Philosophy of the Age of Enlightenment.
Stylistic and genre features of the art of the Enlightenment:
Painting
Conclusion
1) The 18th century is an important stage in the evolution of Western European culture. He made a significant contribution to the development of literature, music, theater, painting, giving the world many famous names in all types of artistic creativity. The 18th century differs from the previous and subsequent ones by the ideological and social movement that then arose in Europe and is known as the Enlightenment. The ideology of the Enlightenment arose in the 17th century - its founder is considered English philosopher D. Locke (1632–1704) - however, its heyday occurred in the next century. Representatives of the Enlightenment, in their political, philosophical, and cultural views, defended the power of reason and the light of knowledge, which should overcome the darkness of ignorance, misconceptions and prejudices. Such views were directed against the remnants of feudalism in the state system and the dominant ideology, which hampered the development of capitalism. Therefore, the Enlightenment is considered as the third spiritual revolution after the Renaissance and Reformation, thanks to which the medieval foundations of social life were overthrown and a transition to a higher level of worldview was ensured.
The Enlightenmentists saw the way to overcome social ills and inequality, to ensure the reign of freedom, equality, and universal happiness in the “enlightenment of minds.” They rejected violence and inequality and called for religious tolerance and equality. Their ideal was freethinking (freethinking), rejection of any dogma, and a critical attitude towards any authority.
The Enlightenment people revered science, which in this era went beyond just universities and laboratories. If previously scientific knowledge was the property of only a small circle of scientists, then in the 18th century science increasingly embraced production. In the second half of the century, an industrial revolution began in England, which would have been impossible without the corresponding development of physical, mathematical and engineering thought. The Age of Enlightenment is a boundless faith in the capabilities of the human mind and sciences, creating conditions for economic and social well-being. The Enlightenmentists believed in enlightened absolutism and considered it possible to destroy lawlessness and social injustice by enlightening the people by educated monarchies.
England was a country of the “first echelon” of capitalism; it moved to this progressive economic system earlier than other states. The development of commodity production contributed to the democratization of society and the establishment of a regime of free competition. Public consciousness gradually became liberated and freed from traditional religious dogmas. Free-thinking spread in society. It was England that became the birthplace of the Enlightenment.
The ideas of John Locke (1632–1704) had the greatest influence among English educators.
Born into a lawyer's family and receiving a strict religious upbringing, Locke nevertheless advocated a change in the English educational system, arguing that education should, above all, enrich the human mind and prepare people for active political life and practical activity. He finalized the system of natural law, the foundations of which were laid by ancient thinkers. He considered the inalienable rights the right to life, liberty and property: at birth, every person is given the right to life and liberty, and the right to property is the result of his labor.
Locke rejected the divine right theory of monarchy. To better ensure natural human rights, it is necessary, in his opinion, to create a special body - the state. Locke is a supporter of the origin of the state on the basis of a social contract. He considered a constitutional monarchy to be the optimal form of government and developed the theory of separation of powers - the executive power, including the judiciary, should be clearly separated from the legislative. The people have the right not to support and even to overthrow an irresponsible government. Locke's political theory had a huge revolutionary impact on the social thought of Europe.
Locke analyzed the empirical theory of knowledge. He rejected the existence of innate ideas, believing that all knowledge comes from sensory experience (sensualism). Recognizing sensation as the source of our thought is Locke's great achievement.
The idealistic trend in the English Enlightenment is represented by Berkeley and Hume.
George Berkeley (1685–1753) did not accept the ideas of materialism and argued for the inviolability of religion. In his opinion, the real world exists only insofar as it is perceived by us. This meant the denial of the objectivity of the real world and the recognition of the highest spiritual substance - God.
David Hume (1711–1776) – philosopher, historian, economist, formulated the basic principles of agnosticism. Recognizing the reality of the world around us, Hume denied the possibility of knowing it. He extended this view to spiritual substance as well.
The French Enlightenment is represented by bright, talented thinkers.
An outstanding representative of the French Enlightenment, Voltaire (1694–1778) was distinguished by his sharp mind, versatile abilities and encyclopedic knowledge. Voltaire was a poet, playwright, historian, philosopher, physicist, publicist, and politician.
Throughout his life, Voltaire fought for the abolition of spiritual slavery, advocated freedom of religion, press, and speech, arguing that a just social order can exist when it is based on freedom and equality. Hating all tyranny, he considered it necessary to limit the power of the king, but believed in the power of the “enlightened monarchy.” Voltaire recognized the main social evil as the church, which deceived the people. At the same time, he believed in God: God is the prime mover, the legislator of the Universe, its highest rational principle, faith in God is needed as the basis of morality and a rein for the masses.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) worked a lot from childhood, experienced poverty, humiliation, and changed many professions.
According to Rousseau, the first violation and violation of the “natural rights” of man was the emergence of private property. The entire history of mankind after this is a further increase in inequality, which led to the oppression of the poor by the rich, the weak by the strong. However, Rousseau recognized private property based on personal labor. While agreeing that the destruction of private property was premature, Rousseau believed that this evil could be reduced by introducing laws against excessive luxury.
He was not a materialist, believing that the material world is secondary, generated by God. Recognizing the objective existence of matter, independent of human consciousness, Rousseau excluded the possibility of knowing the world.
As for Germany, political fragmentation and the weakness of the bourgeoisie determined the more limited nature of the German Enlightenment. The German burghers moved away from questions of reality into the realm of pure theory, into philosophical transcendental heights, into the emotional structure of music.
The largest representative of the German Enlightenment is Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). He viewed the Age of Enlightenment as a higher stage in the development of human society than before: man became freed from external pressure and could freely use his mind.
The main problem that worried Kant as a philosopher was related to man’s ability to understand the world. Kant's position is twofold. He recognized an objectively existing “thing in itself,” but argued that it was unknowable. Kant was one of the first theorists of the rule of law in the modern era. The functions of the state, according to Kant, are to develop and adopt laws that regulate the behavior of people in society and ensure the triumph of law and freedom. Without a state it is impossible to limit the arbitrariness of some in relation to others. Improving legal norms and changing the state and social system must be carried out through consistent reforms, and any gross violence is unacceptable.
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The 18th century entered the history of social thought as Age of Enlightenment as the age of reason. Reason and Enlightenment are the main slogans of the era. At the same time, this is also the “gallant age” (France). France became the hegemon of the spiritual life of Europe, and educational ideas also spread to England, Germany, Italy, and Russia. The crisis of absolutism, bourgeois revolutions, and the spread of philosophical knowledge prepared the birth of a new culture. This was expressed in a new understanding of man himself, whom the enlighteners believed could be changed for the better.
A distinctive feature of the Enlightenment ideology is is reliable on the human mind and the harmony of society through the education of people and the development of their creativity.
France gave the world such educators as J. -J. Rousseau, D. Diderot, Voltaire.
In England it is Cavendish, Fielding, J. Watt.
In Germany - Lessing, Goethe, Schiller, Kant.
In Russia - Lomonosov, Radishchev.
In the 18th century, technologies and achievements quickly changed, urban culture dominated, and appeared to people as an arena of transformative, creative activity. A new understanding of culture as spiritual creativity people enters the mass consciousness of Western civilization.
The authority of science and knowledge rises during the Age of Enlightenment to unprecedented heights. The great French enlighteners - Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau - gave a new interpretation of philosophical and aesthetic categories such as beauty, harmony, taste. These philosophers provided examples of a comprehensive analysis of the artistic process, individual types and genres of art. The aesthetic factor in all aspects of artistic culture becomes decisive.
In particular, Voltaire in the article “Taste” puts forward the position of the historical variability of the culture of peoples depending on the historical events they experience. He views art as a powerful means of transforming the world. Voltaire sees art as a school of morality, a powerful means of education and propaganda of new ideas.
Denis Diderot is the most versatile representative of the French Enlightenment. He is the founder and creator of the famous "Encyclopedia of Arts, Sciences and Crafts". Diderot combines the talents of a philosopher, art theorist, art critic and writer. His story “Ramo's Nephew” became widely known.
Culture of the German Enlightenment represented by the work of young German writers from the creative association “Storm and Drang”. These are I.G. Herder, I.V. Goethe, F. Schiller, F.M. Klinker and others. In their works they substantiated principles:
Historical approach to art;
The dependence of art on the natural and social environment;
National artistic culture characteristic of every nation;
Conviction of the advent of a “golden age” of art.
The work of the poets of Sturm and Drang is recognized as optimism, faith in human capabilities, and an appeal to people’s individual experiences.
In the art of the 18th century classicism acquires new features. It is closely connected with the revolutionary actions of the bourgeoisie throughout Europe, the ideals of political freedom and national independence. Classicism ceases to be a closed, isolated artistic phenomenon; it is in close contact with Baroque, Rococo, sentimentalism, and the folk culture of various European countries. The names of F. Schiller (drama “The Robber Brothers”), I. Goethe (“Faust”), J.L. David (canvas “Freedom on the Barricades”), Mozart, Bach, Beethoven resound throughout Europe. D. Defoe publishes his famous novel “Robinson Crusoe”, in which he creates the image of an energetic man of the future bourgeois era.
In the second half of the 18th century, art was formed sentimentalism - an artistic movement that proclaims natural feeling as the defining moment life values. The English writer L. Stern publishes “A Sentimental Journey”, the heroes of which are ordinary people, presented in an emotionally rich, tearful, compassionate way. J. -J. Rousseau, in the spirit of sentimentalism, creates the novel “The New Heloise”, N. Karamzin creates the story “The Young Lady-Peasant Woman” (and “Peasant Women Can Love”). The motives of sentimentalism are heard in the works of Goethe, Schiller, Richardson, and in Russian literature in the works of N. Lvov, V. Zhukovsky. The favorite genres of sentimentalist writers are diaries, travel notes, elegies, and novels, full of confessions and moralizing messages.
In the culture of the 18th century, the foundations of utilitarian morality were laid. (“What is useful is also virtuous” by I. Bentham), B. Franklin develops the basic principles of bourgeois morality: “time is money”, “thrift and work lead to wealth”, etc.
Read the continuation of the topic “Culture of the New Time”:
Enlightenment in Europe called the ideological movement among the educated part of the European population in the second half of the 17th - 18th centuries. The main ideas of the Enlightenment were:
The idea of humanism, the natural right of every person to recognition of the value of his personality, to happiness. A person is valuable regardless of his origin, nationality, race.
Condemnation of social inequality of people, exploitation of man by man. Anti-feudal sentiments.
The idea of restructuring society on the basis of reason and science. Reason for the enlighteners is an active instrument of transformation, and not a passive receptacle of ideally correct knowledge given by God, as the classicists viewed it.
Criticism of the church, religious prohibitions and prejudices, critical revision of generally accepted spiritual and intellectual values.
Condemnation of political tyranny.
- The idea of enlightened absolutism- rulers of countries should take care of the development of science and education among the population (“the union of kings and philosophy”)
Enlightenment in literature made an invaluable contribution to the development of such a genre as the novel. The genres of the European philosophical novel and drama were founded precisely by the Enlightenment. At the center of literary works written by educators is the image of an intellectual hero, often a figure in art or science, who seeks to reform the world or fights for a worthy place in life. The works of educators are filled with propaganda of reading books and education. The characters express the author's ideas for a better structure of society. Authors often present voluminous discussions of their characters, their correspondence about problems of economics, aesthetics, religion and church, politics, pedagogy, etc.
Outstanding representatives of the Enlightenment in literature: Voltaire, Charles Louis de Montesquieu, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Oliver Goldsmith, Mikhail Lomonosov, Grigory2 Skovoroda.
TO cultural values of the Enlightenment This includes the rapid proliferation of newspapers, the beginning of the publication of magazines and encyclopedias, and the emergence of social clubs where debates on important social issues took place. These are academies, scientific societies, Masonic lodges, circles, secular and artistic salons and cafes.
THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT Enlightenment, intellectual and spiritual movement of the late 17th and early 19th centuries. in Europe and North America. It was a natural continuation of the humanism of the Renaissance and the rationalism of the early modern era, which laid the foundations of the enlightenment worldview: the rejection of a religious worldview and an appeal to reason as the only criterion for knowledge of man and society. The name was fixed after the publication of I. Kant’s article Answer to the question: what is Enlightenment?(1784). The root word “light,” from which the term “enlightenment” comes (English: Enlightenment; French: Les Lumières; German: Aufklärung; Italian: Illuminismo), goes back to an ancient religious tradition, enshrined in both the Old and New Testaments. This is the Creator’s separation of light from darkness, and the definition of God himself as Light. Christianization itself implies the enlightenment of humanity with the light of the teachings of Christ. Rethinking this image, the enlighteners put a new understanding into it, talking about the enlightenment of man with the light of reason
The Enlightenment originated in England at the end of the 17th century. in the writings of its founder D. Locke (1632–1704) and his followers G. Bolingbroke (1678–1751), D. Addison (1672–1719), A. E. Shaftesbury (1671–1713), F. Hutcheson (1694– 1747) the basic concepts of enlightenment teaching were formulated: “common good”, “natural man”, “natural law”, “natural religion”, “social contract”. In the doctrine of natural law, set forth in Two treatises on government(1690) D. Locke, fundamental human rights are substantiated: freedom, equality, inviolability of person and property, which are natural, eternal and inalienable. People need to voluntarily enter into a social contract, on the basis of which a body (state) is created to ensure the protection of their rights. The concept of a social contract was one of the fundamental ones in the doctrine of society developed by the figures of the early English Enlightenment.
In the 18th century, France became the center of the educational movement. At the first stage of the French Enlightenment, the main figures were S. L. Montesquieu (1689–1755) and Voltaire (F. M. Arouet, 1694–1778). In the works of Montesquieu, Locke's doctrine of the rule of law was further developed. In the treatise About the spirit of laws(1748) the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial was formulated. IN Persian letters(1721) Montesquieu outlined the path that French educational thought was to take with its cult of the reasonable and natural. However, Voltaire held different political views. He was an ideologist of enlightened absolutism and sought to instill the ideas of the Enlightenment in the monarchs of Europe (service with Frederick II, correspondence with Catherine II). He was distinguished by his clearly expressed anti-clerical activities, opposed religious fanaticism and hypocrisy, church dogmatism and the supremacy of the church over the state and society. The writer’s work is diverse in themes and genres: anti-clerical works Virgin of Orleans (1735), Fanaticism, or Prophet Mohammed(1742); philosophical stories Candide, or Optimism (1759), Simple-minded(1767); tragedy Brutus (1731), Tancred (1761); Philosophical letters (1733).
In the second stage of the French Enlightenment, the main role was played by Diderot (1713–1784) and the encyclopedists. Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts, 1751–1780 became the first scientific encyclopedia, which presented basic concepts in the fields of physical and mathematical sciences, natural sciences, economics, politics, engineering and art. In most cases, the articles were thorough and reflected the latest state of knowledge. Inspirers and editors Encyclopedias Diderot and J. D'Alembert (1717–1783) appeared; Voltaire, Condillac, Helvetius, Holbach, Montesquieu, Rousseau took an active part in its creation. Articles on specific areas of knowledge were written by professionals - scientists, writers, engineers.
The third period brought forward the figure of J.-J. Rousseau (1712–1778). He became the most prominent popularizer of the ideas of the Enlightenment, introducing elements of sensitivity and eloquent pathos into the rationalistic prose of the Enlightenment. Rousseau proposed his own way of political structure of society. In the treatise On the Social Contract, or Principles of Political Law(1762) he put forward the idea of popular sovereignty. According to it, the government receives power from the hands of the people in the form of an order, which it is obliged to carry out in accordance with the will of the people. If it violates this will, then the people can limit, modify or take away the power given to them. One means of such a return of power could be the violent overthrow of the government. Rousseau's ideas found their further development in the theory and practice of the ideologists of the Great French Revolution.
The period of the late Enlightenment (late 18th - early 19th centuries) is associated with the countries of Eastern Europe, Russia and Germany. German literature and philosophical thought gave new impetus to the Enlightenment. German enlighteners were the spiritual successors of the ideas of English and French thinkers, but in their writings they were transformed and took on a deeply national character. The originality of the national culture and language was asserted by I.G. Herder (1744–1803). His main work Ideas for the philosophy of human history(1784–1791) became the first thorough classical work with which Germany entered the arena of world historical and philosophical science. The work of many German writers was in tune with the philosophical quest of the European Enlightenment. The pinnacle of the German Enlightenment, which gained worldwide fame, were such works as Robbers (1781), Deceit and love (1784), Wallenstein (1799), Mary Stuart(1801) F. Schiller (1759–1805), Emilia Galotti, Nathan the Wise G.E. Lessing (1729–1781) and especially Faust(1808–1832) I.-V. Goethe(1749–1832). The philosophers G. W. Leibniz (1646–1716) and I. Kant (1724–1804) played an important role in the formation of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The idea of progress, traditional for the Enlightenment, was developed in Critique of Pure Reason I. Kant (1724–1804), who became the founder of German classical philosophy.
Throughout the development of the Enlightenment, the concept of “reason” was at the center of the thinking of its ideologists. Reason, in the view of the Enlightenment, gives a person an understanding of both the social structure and himself. Both can be changed for the better, can be improved. In this way, the idea of progress was substantiated, which was conceived as the irreversible course of history from the darkness of ignorance to the kingdom of reason. The highest and most productive form of activity of the mind was considered scientific knowledge. It was during this era that sea travel acquired a systematic and scientific character. Geographical discoveries in the Pacific Ocean (Easter Islands, Tahiti and Hawaii, east coast of Australia) J. Roggeveen (1659–1729), D. Cook (1728–1779), L.A. Bougainville (1729–1811), J. F. La Perouse (1741–1788) laid the foundation for the systematic study and practical development of this region, which stimulated the development of natural sciences. C. Linnaeus (1707–1778) made a great contribution to botany. In progress Plant species(1737) he described thousands of species of flora and fauna and gave them double Latin names. J.L. Buffon (1707–1788) introduced the term “biology” into scientific circulation, denoting the “science of life”. S. Lamarck (1744–1829) put forward the first theory of evolution. In mathematics, I. Newton (1642–1727) and G. W. Leibniz (1646–1716) almost simultaneously discovered differential and integral calculus. The development of mathematical analysis was promoted by L. Lagrange (1736–1813) and L. Euler (1707–1783). The founder of modern chemistry A.L. Lavoisier (1743–1794) compiled the first list chemical elements. A characteristic feature of the scientific thought of the Enlightenment was that it was focused on the practical use of scientific achievements in the interests of industrial and social development.
The task of educating the people, which the educators set for themselves, required careful attention to issues of upbringing and education. Hence - a strong didactic principle, manifested not only in scientific treatises, but also in literature. As a true pragmatist, who attached great importance to those disciplines that were necessary for the development of industry and trade, D. Locke spoke in his treatise Thoughts on parenting(1693). A novel of education can be called The Life and Amazing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe(1719) D. Defoe (1660–1731). It presented a model of behavior of a reasonable individual and, from a didactic perspective, showed the importance of knowledge and work in the life of an individual. The works of the founder of the English psychological novel S. Richardson (1689–1761) are also didactic, in whose novels - Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded(1740) and Clarissa Garlow, or the Story of a Young Lady(1748–1750) - the Puritan-Enlightenment ideal of the individual was embodied. French educators also spoke about the decisive role of education. C.A. Helvetius (1715–1771) in works About the mind(1758) and About a human(1769) proved the influence of the “environment” on education, i.e. living conditions, social order, customs and morals. Rousseau, unlike other educators, was aware of the limitations of reason. In the treatise About sciences and arts(1750) he questioned the cult of science and the boundless optimism associated with the possibility of progress, believing that with the development of civilization there is an impoverishment of culture. Associated with these beliefs were Rousseau's calls for a return to nature. In the essay Emil, or About education(1762) and in the novel Julia, or New Heloise(1761) he developed the concept of natural education based on the use of the natural abilities of a child, free at birth from vices and bad inclinations that are later formed in him under the influence of society. According to Rousseau, children should have been raised in isolation from society, alone with nature.
Enlightenment thought was aimed at constructing utopian models of both the ideal state as a whole and the ideal individual. Therefore, 18th century. may be called the “golden age of utopia.” European culture of this time gave rise to a huge number of novels and treatises telling about the transformation of the world according to the laws of reason and justice - Will J. Meslier (1664–1729); The Code of Nature, or the True Spirit of Her Laws(1773) Morelli; On the rights and responsibilities of a citizen(1789) G. Mably (1709–1785); 2440(1770) L. S. Mercier (1740–1814). The novel by D. Swift (1667–1745) can be considered simultaneously as a utopia and a dystopia. Gulliver's travels(1726), which debunks such fundamental ideas of the Enlightenment as the absolutization of scientific knowledge, belief in law and natural man.
In the artistic culture of the Enlightenment there was no single style of the era, a single artistic language. Various stylistic forms simultaneously existed in it: late baroque, rococo, classicism, sentimentalism, pre-romanticism. The ratio of different types of art changed. Music and literature came to the fore, and the role of theater increased. There was a change in the hierarchy of genres. Historical and mythological painting of the “grand style” of the 17th century gave way to paintings on everyday and moralizing themes (J.B. Chardin (1699–1779), W. Hogarth (1697–1764), J.B. Greuze (1725–1805 In the genre of portrait there is a transition from ostentation to intimacy (T. Gainsborough, 1727–1788, D. Reynolds, 1723–1792). In the theater, a new genre of bourgeois drama and comedy emerges, in which a new hero, a representative of the third estate, is brought onto the stage – from P.O. Beaumarchais (1732–1799) in Barber of Seville(1775) and The Marriage of Figaro(1784), by C. Goldoni (1707–1793) in Servant of two masters(1745, 1748) and To the innkeeper(1753). In the history of world theater, the names of R.B. Sheridan (1751–1816), G. Fielding (1707–1754), and C. Gozzi (1720–1806) stand out prominently.
During the Age of Enlightenment, there was an unprecedented rise in the art of music. After the reform carried out by K.V. Gluck (1714–1787), opera became a synthetic art, combining music, singing and complex dramatic action in one performance. F. J. Haydn (1732–1809) raised instrumental music to the highest level of classical art. The pinnacle of the musical culture of the Enlightenment is the work of J. S. Bach (1685–1750) and W. A. Mozart (1756–1791). The educational ideal emerges especially clearly in Mozart’s opera. magical flute(1791), which is distinguished by the cult of reason, light, and the idea of man as the crown of the Universe.
The educational movement, having common basic principles, developed differently in different countries. The formation of the Enlightenment in each state was associated with its political, social and economic conditions, as well as with national characteristics.
English Enlightenment. The period of formation of educational ideology occurred at the turn of the 17th–18th centuries. This was the result and consequence of the English bourgeois revolution of the mid-17th century, which is the fundamental difference between the insular Enlightenment and the continental one. Having survived the bloody upheavals of civil war and religious intolerance, the British sought stability rather than a radical change in the existing system. Hence the moderation, restraint and skepticism that distinguishes the English Enlightenment. The national peculiarity of England was the strong influence of Puritanism on all spheres of public life, therefore, the belief in the limitless possibilities of the mind, common to Enlightenment thought, was combined among English thinkers with deep religiosity.
French Enlightenment was distinguished by the most radical views on all issues of a political and social nature. French thinkers created teachings that denied private property (Rousseau, Mably, Morelli) and defended atheistic views (Diderot, Helvetius, P.A. Holbach). It was France, which became the center of educational thought for a century, that contributed to the rapid spread of advanced ideas in Europe - from Spain to Russia and North America. These ideas also inspired the ideologists of the Great French Revolution, which radically changed the social and political structure of France.
American Enlightenment. The movement of American educators is closely connected with the struggle of the British colonies in North America for independence (1775–1783), which ended with the creation of the United States of America. The development of socio-political programs that prepared the theoretical basis for building an independent state was carried out by T. Paine (1737–1809), T. Jefferson (1743–1826) and B. Franklin (1706–1790). Their theoretical programs formed the basis for the main legislative acts of the new state: the Declaration of Independence of 1776 and the Constitution of 1787.
German Enlightenment. The development of the German Enlightenment was influenced by the political fragmentation of Germany and its economic backwardness, which determined the predominant interest of German enlighteners not in socio-political problems, but in issues of philosophy, morality, aesthetics and education. A unique version of the European Enlightenment was the literary movement “Sturm and Drang” , to which Herder, Goethe and Schiller belonged. Unlike their predecessors, they had a negative attitude towards the cult of reason, giving preference to the sensual principle in man. A feature of the German Enlightenment was also the flowering of philosophical and aesthetic thought (G. Lessing Laocoon, or on the boundaries of painting and poetry,1766; I. Winkelman History of ancient art,1764).
The Enlightenment is considered to be the stage of development of European culture at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 19th century. Rationalism, intelligence, science - these three concepts began to come to the fore. The basis of the Enlightenment ideology is faith in man. The eighteenth century is a time of man's great hopes for himself and his capabilities, a time of faith in the human mind and the high purpose of man. The enlighteners were convinced that healthy fantasy, imagination, and feeling must be formed. Books began to appear in which writers wanted to put as much information as possible about the world around people, to give them an idea of other countries and continents. Of course, one cannot help but remember such famous people, like Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau. A whole variety of genres, from the scientific encyclopedia to the educational novel, appeared during this period. In this regard, Voltaire said: “All genres are beautiful, except the boring.”
Voltaire(1694-1778)
Voltaire's creative legacy is enormous: fifty volumes of six hundred pages each. It was about him that Victor Hugo said that “this is not a person, this is an ERA.” Voltaire still has the fame of an outstanding scientist, philosopher, and poet. What can be found in Voltaire's Philosophical Letters? Principles of philosophy that are still relevant today: tolerance, the right to freely express one’s own thoughts. What about religion? This was also a hot topic. It turns out that the enlighteners, in particular Voltaire, did not reject the existence of God, but rejected the influence of God on the fate of man. It is known that the Russian Empress Catherine the Great corresponded with Voltaire. After the death of the philosopher, she wanted to buy his library along with their correspondence - however, the letters were bought and subsequently published by Pierre Augustin Beaumarchais, the author of The Marriage of Figaro.
By the way, Voltaire’s working day lasted from 18 to 20 hours. At night he often got up, woke up his secretary and dictated to him, or wrote himself. He also drank up to 50 cups of coffee a day.
Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712 – 1778)
Rousseau was not a supporter of radical measures, but his ideas were inspired by the fighters for the ideals of the Great French Revolution.
Just like Voltaire, he is French philosopher, one of the most influential thinkers of the 18th century, the ideological predecessor of the French Revolution. In his first works, Rousseau expressed the tenets of his worldview. The foundations of civil life, division of labor, property, state and laws are only the source of inequality, unhappiness and depravity of people. Based on the idea that man is naturally endowed with an inclination towards goodness, Rousseau believed that the main task of pedagogy is the development of the good inclinations endowed in man by nature. From this point of view, Rousseau rebelled against any violent methods in education, and especially against cluttering the child's mind with unnecessary knowledge. Rousseau's ideas influenced the leaders of the French Revolution, they are written into the American Constitution, his educational theories still make themselves felt indirectly in almost every school throughout the world, and his influence on literature continues to this day. Rousseau developed his political ideas in a number of works, the pinnacle of which is the treatise “On the Social Contract” published in 1762. “Man is born to be free, and yet he is in chains everywhere.” These words, which begin the first chapter of the treatise, went around the whole world.
By the way, Jean Jacques Rousseau was the author of a musical dictionary and wrote the comic opera “The Village Sorcerer,” which became the founder of French vaudeville operas and lasted on the French opera stage for more than 60 years. As a result of his conflict with the church and government (early 1760s, after the publication of the book “Emile, or On Education”), the suspicion initially characteristic of Rousseau acquired extremely painful forms. He saw conspiracies everywhere. It was his “Social Contract” that inspired the fighters for the ideals of the Great French Revolution; Rousseau himself, paradoxically, was never a supporter of such radical measures.
Denis Diderot(1713-1784)
Diderot enjoyed traveling around Russia and lived in St. Petersburg.
French philosopher-educator - foreign honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Founder and editor of the Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts. IN philosophical works Denis Diderot, being a supporter of the enlightened monarchy, came out with an irreconcilable criticism of absolutism, the Christian religion and the church, and defended (based on sensationalism) materialist ideas. Diderot's literary works were written mainly in the tradition of the realistic everyday novel of the Enlightenment. If the bourgeoisie sought to destroy class barriers between itself and the privileged nobility, then Diderot destroyed class barriers in literary genres. From now on, the tragedy became more humanized. All classes could be represented in a dramatic work. At the same time, the rationalistic construction of characters gave way to a real depiction of living people. Like Voltaire, he did not trust the masses of the people, who, in his opinion, were incapable of sound judgment in “moral and political questions.” Diderot maintained friendly relations with Dmitry Golitsyn. As an art critic, he wrote annual reviews of art exhibitions - "Salons". And from 1773 to 1774, Diderot, at the invitation of Catherine II, traveled to Russia and lived in St. Petersburg.
Montesquieu (1689-1755)
Montesquieu developed the doctrine of separation of powers.
Full name: Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron La Brade et de Montesquieu. French writer, lawyer and philosopher, author of the novel “Persian Letters”, articles from the “Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts”, work “On the Spirit of Laws”, supporter of the naturalistic approach to the study of society. Developed the doctrine of separation of powers. Montesquieu led a simple solitary life and concentrated with full spiritual strength and deep seriousness on the task of an observer, a thinker and a seeker of norms. The post of President of the Parliament of Bordeaux, which went to Montesquieu in 1716, soon began to weigh heavily on him. In 1726 he resigned this position, but, as the owner of the castle of La Brede, he faithfully maintained the corporate beliefs of the parliamentary aristocracy.
He represented a type of French aristocrat, already rare at that time, who did not allow himself to be caught by the temptations of the court, and became a scientist in the spirit of noble independence. The large trips around Europe undertaken by Montesquieu in 1728-1731 had the character of serious research trips. Montesquieu actively visited literary salons and clubs and was acquainted with many writers, scientists, and diplomats. Among his interlocutors, for example, is the French researcher of controversial issues of international law Gabriel Mably.
1 See; Markov G.E. History of economy and material culture in primitive and early class society. M.: MSU, 1979. P. 1920.
1 Chelles culture - about 600-400 thousand years ago, so named after finds near the city of Chelles (France). It is characterized by extremely primitive stone tools and hand axes. Economy: hunting and gathering. The physical type of a person is Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Atlantropus, Heidelberg Man, etc.
2 Exogamy is the prohibition of marriage within one group.
1 Rigveda - a collection of religious hymns with ideological and cosmological content, took shape in the 10th century. BC.
1 See: Story National Economy: Dictionary-Reference Book / Ed. A.N. Markova.
– M.: VZFEI, 1995. – P. 19.
1 The Hittite kingdom arose in the 17th century BC. on the territory of Asia Minor; in its heyday (XIV-XIII centuries BC) also included some areas of the Eastern Mediterranean and Northern Mesopotamia. In the 12th century. BC. under the onslaught of the Sea Peoples, the Hittite state ceased to exist.
1 Founded in the 16th century. BC. tribes of Hurrians who came from the Iranian plateau; occupied a significant part of Northern Mesopotamia in the 14th century. BC. was subjugated by the Hittites.
1 On the territory of the Eastern Mediterranean back in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. city-states appear, the largest of which were Ebla and Ugarit in Syria, Hazor in Palestine, Byblos and Sidon in Phenicia. In the 12th century. BC. The Israeli state begins to form in Palestine.
2 This state arose in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. in the valley of the Kerkh and Karun rivers (southwest of modern Iran): the history of Elam is closely connected with the history of Mesopotamia. XII century BC. was the heyday of the state, in the 6th century. BC. it became part of the Achaemenid state.
1 Existed at the end of the 4th-1st centuries. BC, covered part of the territory of the Middle East, Iran and Afghanistan.
1 Greek archaio - ancient.
1 Cities united in a Union (from German Hansa - union).
1 Spanish conqueror-adventurers.
1 The Independents (English - literally independent) - a political party that expressed the interests of the radical wing of the bourgeoisie and the bourgeoisified new nobility, were in power in 1649-1660.
1 Levellers (English - literally equalizers) are a radical political party.
2 Diggers (English - lit. diggers) - the extreme left wing of revolutionary democracy, separated from the Leveler movement.
1 In the XV-XVII centuries. French kings waged a long struggle with the Habsburgs: the Italian wars of 1494-1559, the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648. In 1667, France began the War of Devolution against Spain, using the so-called devolution law as a pretext. According to the Peace of Anhen concluded in 1668, France retained 11 cities it had captured, but returned Frant-Comte to Spain.
1 Anabaptists demanded secondary baptism (at a conscious age), denied church hierarchy, opposed wealth, for community of property.
1 Marx K., Engels F. Op. T. 7. – P. 342.
1 The Ansei Treaties are unequal treaties concluded by the United States, Russia, England and France with Japan in 1854-1858, which put an end to the external isolation of Japan.
1 Marx K. Engels F. Soch. T.4. – P. 524.
Philosophy cheat sheet: answers to exam papers Zhavoronkova Alexandra Sergeevna
19. THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE CULT OF REASON
XVIII century It is commonly called the Age of Enlightenment. The Enlightenment began in England, then in France, Germany and Russia.
The founders of educational ideas - F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, R. Descartes, J. Locke.
Initial ideas of the Enlightenment: the cult of science; cult of reason; progress of humanity.
All works of Enlightenment figures are imbued with the idea of an apology for reason, its luminous power that penetrates darkness and chaos. The Age of Enlightenment is characterized by a huge number of: ideological quests; scientific creative feats; political events shaking society.
Enlighteners fought to ensure that there was no gap in society between poor and rich people; they cared about spreading education among the masses.
Outstanding philosophers of the Enlightenment were: Voltaire (France); J.J. Rousseau (France); D. Diderot (France); K.A. Helvetius (France); P. Holbach (France); Charles Louis Montesquieu (France); Lessing (Germany); Wolf (Germany); Kant (Germany); Novikov (Russia); Radishchev (Russia); Belinsky (Russia); Chernyshevsky (Russia).
The philosophy of the Enlightenment is heterogeneous, it contains:
Materialistic worldview orientation;
Idealistic worldview orientation;
Atheistic views;
Deistic views.
In articles in dictionaries and encyclopedias, pamphlets and polemical publications, scientific and philosophical ideas, which are presented in a lively, intelligible, witty form, attracting people not only with logical evidence, but also with emotional inspiration.
Philosophy of the Enlightenment of the 18th century. presented in two directions:
- deist materialism Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Wolf, etc.;
- theoretical foundations of deism based on the materialistic natural science of Newton, Galileo, Descartes, presented by criticism in the works of Diderot, Holbach, Helvetius, La Mettrie, etc. A prominent representative of the French Enlightenment is Francois Marie Voltaire(1694–1778), who entered the history of philosophy as:
A brilliant publicist and propagandist of Newton's physics and mechanics, English constitutional orders and institutions;
Defender of individual freedom from the encroachments of the church, Jesuits, and the Inquisition.
The formation of the revolutionary ideology of Europe was greatly influenced by Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712–1778), author of the famous work "The Social Contract", which became the theoretical basis for a civil society based on freedom and unconditional equality of legal rights, and inspired the Jacobins during the era of the French Revolution.
Charles Louis Montesquieu(1689–1755):
One of the founders of geographical determinism, who believed that climate, soil and the state of the earth's surface determine the spirit of the people and the nature of the development of society;
He developed the idea of the functional role of religion, necessary to maintain order in society and its morality.
In France, a group of philosophers worked - progressive thinkers, scientists and writers who gathered around the publication of the Encyclopedia, the chief editor and organizer of which was D. Diderot. Along with him, the publishers of the Encyclopedia were Helvetius, Holbach and La Mettrie. They created a fairly developed form of materialism, which influenced subsequent generations of philosophers and schools of philosophy.
From the book The Last and First People: A History of the Near and Distant Future by Stapledon Olaf3. Cult of Youth The inhabitants of Patagonia went through all the spiritual phases that were known to the ancient races, but in their own special way. They had their own primitive tribal religion, inherited from the distant past and based on fear of the forces of nature. They also had
From the book World of Fools author Buryak Alexander Vladimirovich1. The cult of ephemerality The Fifth People were not gifted with the potential immortality that their creators themselves possessed. And from the fact that they were mortal and yet durable, their culture largely derived its brilliance and poignancy. Creatures for whom natural
From the book Sofia's World by Gorder Justein20. Cult of the mind Special respect for the mind in today's mass culture is unjustified, perverted: the intellect is no more worthy of respect than the stomach, kidneys or biceps. It is not at all the main quality of a person, but only an optional appendage to a piece of living meat.
From the book The Fate of Civilization. Path of Reason author Moiseev Nikita NikolaevichTHE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT ...from the way to thread a needle to the way to load a cannon... Hilda began reading the chapter about the Renaissance when she slammed downstairs Entrance door, - it was my mother who came home from work. The girl looked at her watch. It was already four o'clock. Running up the stairs, mom
From the book Worker. Dominance and Gestalt by Junger ErnstChapter six. THE AGE OF THE NOOSPHERE 1. The era of the noosphere and the problem of co-evolution In the 20s, Leroy first used the term “noosphere” - the sphere of Reason, which was then widely used by Teilhard de Chardin. It was thanks to him that this term became widespread. Teilhard de Chardin
From book Indian philosophy(Volume 1) author Radhakrishnan SarvepalliTHE AGE OF THE THIRD ESTATE AS AN AGE OF IMAGINAL DOMINATION 1 The dominance of the third estate was never able to touch in Germany that inner core that determines wealth, power and fullness of life. Looking back at more than a century of German history, we have the right to
From the book Phenomenology of Spirit author Hegel Georg Wilhelm FriedrichVI. CULT OF DURGA The cult of Durga is mentioned in the Mahabharata at the beginning of Bhishmaparva. Krishna advises Arjuna to pay respect to Durga before starting the battle and pray for success. In the first stage, Durga is only a virgin goddess, worshiped by the savage tribes of the area
From the book Fundamentals of Philosophy author Babaev Yuri3. Cult Movement of both sides, in which the form of the deity, moving in the pure sentient element of self-consciousness, and the form of the deity, resting in the element of thinghood, mutually renounce their different definitions, and the unity, which is the concept of their essence, achieves
From the book On the Way to Supersociety author Zinoviev Alexander AlexandrovichThe era of the New Time - the era of the cult of reason The era of the New Time is a period in the history of world civilization when the whole society seemed to shake itself out of a long hibernation in a nightmare environment and saw the world with new eyes (as well as themselves). A new period has begun
From the book Shadows of the Mind [In Search of the Science of Consciousness] by Penrose RogerCULT OF PERSONALITY When criticizing Stalinism, Stalin’s personality cult is usually mentioned among its sins along with repression, collectivization of agriculture, persecution of the church, persecution of certain branches of science and cultural figures. Moreover, the reasons for the cult
From the book Vladimir Ilyich Lenin: the genius of the Russian breakthrough of humanity to socialism author Subetto Alexander IvanovichPart II New physics needed to understand the mind In search of non-computational physics
From the book History of Secret Societies, Unions and Orders author Schuster Georg18.2. The turning point era of the beginning of the 21st century as the Epoch of the Great Evolutionary Turning Point First. This is the Epoch of the Great Evolutionary Turning Point, because at the turn of the 1980s - 1990s, humanity, with its market-capitalist world economy on Earth, entered
From the book Critique of Pure Reason by Kant Immanuel18.3. The turning point era of the beginning of the 21st century as the Epoch of the Global Collapse of Capitalism Second. This is the Age of the Global Collapse of Capitalism in its imperialist form. On the one hand, the global imperialism of the world financial capitalocracy gave rise not only to the first phase
From the author's book18.4. The turning point era of the beginning of the 21st century as the era of the renaissance of the Great Russian Socialist Revolution and the triumph of the Cause of Lenin and Leninism Third. This is the Age of Renaissance of the Great Russian Socialist Revolution and the collapse of the liberal-capitalist counter-revolution in
From the author's book From the author's bookAntinomies of pure reason, section three. On the interest of reason in this contradiction. We have seen here the whole dialectical play of cosmological ideas, which do not allow them to be given a corresponding object in any possible experience; Moreover, they don't even
The 18th century entered Western history as the Age of Enlightenment. The ideology of the Enlightenment arose in the 17th century. - the English philosopher is considered its founder D. Locke(1632-1704) - however, its heyday came in the next century. It received its greatest development in France, where it is represented by thinkers such as Voltaire (1694-1778),C. Montesquieu(1689-1755), J.-J. Rousseau(1712-1778), etc. INGermany Enlightenment is associated with names I. Herdera, I.V. Goethe, I. Kant and others, in USA -T. Jefferson, B. Franklin and etc.
In terms of its content, the 18th century. became a continuation of the previous one and the Renaissance. He sharply contrasted himself with the “gloomy” Middle Ages, further elevated the authority and role of reason and science, and made the ideas of humanism extremely relevant. However, it was not at all a simple repetition of the previous one. XVIII century completed the Modern Age and created all the necessary prerequisites for the subsequent development of the Western world.
Tracing and comprehending the evolution of humanity, enlightenment philosophers have developed a rather slender and holistic the concept of its past, present and future. The basis of this concept was the concepts of “state of nature”, “natural law”, “human nature”, “social contract”, reason, progress, “bright future”, etc.
According to this concept, the evolution of mankind began with a “state of nature”, based on “natural law”, which in turn corresponded "human nature".
The latter, according to educators, is a set of qualities and values such as love, pity, compassion, mercy, freedom, equality, brotherhood, justice, etc., which are inherent only to man and distinguish him from all other living beings. They are natural, since they are born together with a person and act simultaneously as his properties and his inalienable, inalienable rights. Without them and without the right to them, a person ceases to be a person. Rousseau views freedom as the very essence of man and humanity, and pity as the natural foundation of all social virtues. Rousseau is the author of the famous saying: “man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains.”
The period of the natural state of mankind, by which primitive society was meant, was called the “golden age” by the enlighteners, since, in their opinion, it was marked by the highest triumph of freedom, equality, justice and other principles and values. At the same time, all these principles were not guaranteed in any way, were under constant threat and were increasingly violated, the reason for which was a lack of love and an excess of rivalry between people.
In the end, society had to think about their protection and guarantees. This is how it arose, and with it - , And . It arose not by the will of God, but as a result of a conscious agreement, a “social contract” between people. It was the state that had to guarantee strict adherence to the principles and norms of natural law. Along with its emergence, the previous natural state of society gave way to civilian. His appearance also meant the birth civilization.
According to educators, the subsequent evolution of humanity showed that the state did not cope well with the tasks assigned to it. Society moved further and further away from the principles of natural law, various kinds of unfreedoms multiplied, inequality and injustice grew. The highest point in this process was feudalism with its absolute monarchy, which the enlighteners subjected to severe and irreconcilable criticism.
They claimed that feudal system is incompatible with the principles of reason and natural law and must therefore give way to a new society in which these principles will be restored. At the same time, they understood that a return to the past, to the “golden age” was impossible. Therefore, the grandiose program they proposed for building a new society had a pronounced futuristic character: it was aimed at a “bright future”, a “radiant tomorrow”, in the words of the French enlighteners, in which Freedom and Equality would triumph again. Justice, etc. It is noteworthy that the leaders of the French Revolution declared 1793 the first year of the “new era.”
On the path to a “bright future”, enlighteners saw two main obstacles: despotism, in the form of an absolute monarchy, and obscurantism, the embodiment of which was religion and the Church.
The main means of building a new society are put forward education And upbringing. Ignorant, unenlightened. a dark person, according to enlighteners, cannot be free. In turn, only an ignorant monarch puts up with oppression, inequality and injustice, without realizing all their immorality.
Therefore, educators place great hopes on an enlightened monarch, a “philosopher sovereign,” a “sage on the throne,” who will be able to consciously rid society of unfreedom, injustice and other vices. The decisive role in achieving a bright future was given to mind. In their belief in the possibility of creating a just society, educators relied on faith in the progress of reason and man's ability to endlessly improve himself. Reason was declared the supreme judge of all that exists.
In addition to the general program for the reconstruction of society, educators put forward solutions to many specific problems. In particular, they developed classical concept of political pluralism, Montesquieu made a special contribution to its creation. This concept is based on the well-known principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. Montesquieu placed law above power, believing that the latter must strictly follow the letter and spirit of the law. He believed that power stems from strength, and law from reason.
Enlightenment scholars also developed a holistic and deep the concept of man, his rights and freedom. Its main ideas and provisions were reflected in the famous “Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen” (1789), with which the Great French Revolution began. This Declaration proclaimed as inalienable human rights freedom of personality, speech, conscience, equality before the law, and the right to fight against oppression. She also declared private property inviolable.
In relation to culture, in the studies of educators, two main directions in understanding the relationship between national and world cultures have clearly emerged - cultural relativism and universalism. Most educators, especially French ones, adhered to cultural universalism, which proceeded from the fact that there is the unity of the human race, a common “human nature” for all, that despite all the diversity of nations and peoples, there are universal, universal, supranational moral, aesthetic and other values. Because of this, world culture is quite possible, and for European peoples it already exists, and in the future - thanks to the progress of reason, enlightenment and education - humanity will create a fully united world culture.
Supporters of cultural relativism, the founder of which is I. Herder. hold opposite positions, arguing that there is no single human nature, but there are only Germans, French, Russians, etc., that there are only national cultures, that there is no world culture and it is impossible. The debate started by the enlighteners continues to this day, emerging today as a problem of the relationship between national and universal values.
The ideology of the Enlightenment determined the development of all areas of culture in the 18th century. I found myself in a very difficult situation religion. This is the first time she has become the subject of severe criticism. Its most ardent and decisive critic is Voltaire. He owns the famous call: “Crush the reptile!”, directed against religion and especially the Church. It is the Church that is for him the main source of troubles and misfortunes for the people. He exposes her as a defender of the feudal system, a stronghold of obscurantism, fanaticism and intolerance, an opponent of reason, science and enlightenment. In general, the 18th century marked by a sharp weakening of the religious foundations of culture and the strengthening of its secular character.
It develops in much more favorable conditions philosophy. This is not surprising, since the entire ideology of the Enlightenment was the creation of enlightenment philosophers. In their philosophical studies they continue the criticism of religion and medieval scholasticism begun by previous eras. At the same time, many of them, including Voltaire, do not completely break with religion and adhere to the concept of deism, according to which God. being the World Mind, He is the Creator of nature, but after its creation He does not interfere with its existence.
Other Enlightenment philosophers, especially the French materialists - Diderot, Holbach, Helvetius - took a more decisive position in relation to religion. They rejected deism and explained the world based on itself, relying on natural laws.
Philosophy of the 18th century. developed in close unity and cooperation with science and natural history. A huge achievement of this cooperation was the publication "Encyclopedias" in 35 volumes (1751-1780), inspired and edited by Diderot and D'Alembert. The contents of the Encyclopedia consisted of advanced ideas and views on the world and man. It was a body of valuable knowledge and information about the development of science, art and crafts.
XVIII century is a time of rapid development Sciences. During this period, the scientific revolution that had begun earlier ends, and science - meaning natural science - reaches its classical form. The main features and criteria of such a science come down to the following: the objectivity of knowledge, the experience of its origin, the exclusion of everything subjective from it. Science is acquiring unprecedented social prestige. Together with philosophy, Oma appears as the only adequate embodiment of reason.
The unusually increased authority of science leads to the fact that already in the 18th century. the first forms appear scientism. which puts science in the place of religion, absolutizes and deifies the role and significance of science. On its basis, the so-called scientistic utopianism is also formed, according to which the laws of society can become completely “transparent”, fully cognizable; and politics is based on a system of scientific laws that are no different from the laws of nature. In particular, Diderot, who looked at society and man through the prism of natural science and the laws of nature, was inclined towards such views. With this approach, a person ceases to be a subject of cognition and action, is deprived of freedom and is identified with an ordinary object or machine.
It is also developing very successfully art culture, where there is much more continuity. 18th century art acts in many ways as a direct continuation of the previous century. The main styles are still classicism and baroque. At the same time, there is an internal differentiation of art, its fragmentation into a growing number of trends and directions that do not look very clear, blurred. New styles are emerging, in particular rococo And sentimentalism.
In general, the art of the 18th century. - compared to the previous one - seems less deep and sublime, it appears lighter, airier and more superficial. It demonstrates an ironic and skeptical attitude towards what was previously considered noble, chosen and sublime. The Epicurean principle, the craving for hedonism, the spirit of pleasure and enjoyment are noticeably strengthened in him. At the same time, art becomes more natural, closer to reality. Moreover, it increasingly invades social life, struggle and politics, and becomes biased.
Classicism represents primarily a French artist J.-L. David (1748-1825). His work reflects major historical events and the theme of civic duty. His famous painting “The Oath of the Horatii” sounds like a call to fight against absolutism. This work is distinguished by its strict composition, clear rhythm, bright and rich color. His other painting, “The Death of Marat,” is dedicated to the Great French Revolution, in which David took an active part. Here, on the contrary, emphasized laconicism and asceticism of pictorial means prevail. The painting “The Coronation of Napoleon I” became a grandiose canvas on a historical theme.
Baroque XVIII century did not produce figures equal in scale and significance to Rubens. Being the “great style” of the era of absolutism, it gradually lost its influence, and by the middle of the 18th century. it is increasingly being squeezed by the Rococo style, which is sometimes called degenerate Baroque.
Most widespread rococo received in France. One of its most famous representatives is the artist O. Fragonard (1732-1806). He continues the line of Rubens, which is manifested in his sensual perception of color and special attention to the beauty of female flesh and exciting bodily forms. A striking example in this regard is the painting "Bathers" expressing the real apotheosis of life, sensual joy and pleasure. At the same time, the flesh and forms depicted by Fragonard appear as if incorporeal, airy and even ephemeral. In his works, virtuosity, grace, sophistication, light and air effects come to the fore. It is in this spirit that the painting “Swing” was painted.
Sentimentalism, which arose in the second half of the 18th century, was the first opposition to the Enlightenment deification of reason. He contrasted reason with the cult of natural feeling. One of the founders and main figures of sentimentalism was J.-J. Rousseau. He owns the famous saying: “The mind can make mistakes. feeling - never! In his works - “Julia, or New Heloise”, “Confession”, etc. - he depicts the life and concerns of ordinary people, their feelings and thoughts, glorifies nature, critically evaluates city life, and idealizes patriarchal peasant life.
The greatest artists of the 18th century. go beyond stylistic boundaries. These include primarily the French artist A. Watteau (1684-1721) and Spanish painter F. Goya (1746-1828).
Watteau's work is closest to the Rococo style. Therefore, he is sometimes called the genius of the Rococo era. At the same time, the influence of Rubens and Van Dyck, Poussin and Titian is felt in his works. He is rightfully considered the forerunner of romanticism and the first great romantic in painting. J. Ko who compares Watgos to Mozart. All this makes the work of the French artist extremely complex and multi-valued.
The main themes of his works are nature and woman, love and music. Watteau became one of the greatest painters of the human soul, its immeasurable depths and subtle tints. He created amazing musical painting, as if vibrating and pulsating. It is marked by vivid theatricality. It combines the real and the imaginary, the serious and the funny, joy and sadness. In the film " Morning toilet" Watteau depicted a wonderful naked girl. The canvas “Pierrot” is dedicated to the Italian comedian. The artist’s most famous work is considered to be the painting “ Pilgrimage to the island of Cythera."
No less complex and multifaceted is the art of F. Goya. With his work he continues the realistic trend of Rembrandt. In his works one can detect the influence of Poussin, Rubens and other great artists. At the same time, his art is organically fused with Spanish painting - especially with the art of Velasx. Goya is one of the painters whose work has a pronounced national character. Goya successfully worked in almost all genres of painting. As a court artist, he created magnificent portraits of members of the royal family. Among them is the “Portrait of Queen Marie-Louise”. In the portrait genre, he also created such masterpieces as “Maja on the Balcony” and “Portrait of Sabasa Garcia”. Many of Goya’s canvases depict simple working people, scenes from folk life, beautiful Spanish landscapes, bullfights, etc. Among the famous works is the series of etchings “Caprichos”, executed with amazing artistic power.
It is especially necessary to highlight musical art experiencing in the 18th century. unprecedented rise and prosperity. If the 17th century is considered the century of theater, then the 18th century. can rightfully be called the century of music. Its social prestige increases so much that it takes first place among the arts, displacing painting.
Music of the 18th century. represented by such names as F. Haydn, K. Gluck, G. Handel. Among the great composers, I.S. deserve close attention. Bach (1685-1750) and V.A. Mozart (1756-1791).
Bach is the last great genius of the Baroque era. He successfully worked in almost all musical genres, except opera. His music was far ahead of its time, anticipating many later styles, including Romanticism. Bach's work constitutes the pinnacle of the art of polyphony. In the field of vocal and dramatic music, the composer’s most famous masterpiece is the cantata “St. Matthew Passion”, which tells the story of last days life of Christ. Bach's greatest fame during his lifetime came from organ music. Here he knows no equal. In the field of music for the clavier, the composer’s brilliant creation is "The Well-Tempered Clavier"", which is a kind of encyclopedia of music styles of the 17th - 18th centuries.
Austrian composer V.A. Mozart is one of the greatest geniuses of world art. He belongs to the Viennese classical school. His music is characterized by classical, transparent clarity and piercing purity of sound. However, his work goes beyond any particular style. His works combine the principles of classicism with the aesthetics of sentimentalism. They also contain lightness, grace, sophistication and tenderness of gallant style.
At the same time, Mozart is the forerunner of romanticism - the first great romantic in music. His work spans almost every genre, and he is a bold innovator everywhere. During Mozart's lifetime, his operas enjoyed the greatest success. The most famous among them are “ Wedding6aFigaro." "Don Juan", "The Magic Flute". Also worthy of special mention is “ Requiem" However, real fame came to Mozart after his death. He became a symbol of incredible talent, unsurpassed genius, selfless loyalty to art.
The Age of Enlightenment is of fundamental importance for the subsequent history of Western Europe. It became a time of affirmation and triumph of the human mind. It acted both as a project and as the beginning of the modern era. The ideals and values she proclaimed played a decisive role in the development of mankind for two centuries. However, many of them are currently experiencing a deep crisis.