Features of the development of philosophical ideas in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Lecture notes on philosophy Basic ideas of Russian philosophy of the 19th century
The peculiarity of this historical period also determined the tasks that Russian philosophy solved in this historical period. The events of the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Decembrist uprising of 1825 were interpreted in philosophical and literary critical works of this period. the abolition of serfdom in 1861, the implementation of liberal reforms, the development of capitalist relations, the beginning of the revolutionary democratic movement.
A significant stage in Russian philosophy was the stage of development of philosophical and social thought by the Decembrists. P. Pestel, N. Muravyov, I. Yakushkin, V. Kuchelbecker in their writings considered the problems of driving forces in the historical process, social structure and its development, the role of the individual in history.
The vitality of Russian philosophy, its desire to understand the socio-political processes taking place in Russia, the causes of social clashes and political struggles, divided its representatives into two camps: on the one hand, religious-idealistic, Slavophile, reformist, on the other - materialistic, atheistic, Westernizing, revolutionary-radical.
Prominent representatives of Westerners were A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev, K.D. Kavelin, V.G. Belinsky. In their opinion, Russia has lagged behind Western civilization, and the adoption of Western values will be a great benefit for its people. They tried to introduce ideas and principles of materialism and empiricism into Russian philosophy.
The leaders of the Slavophiles were A.S. Khomyakov, I.V.Kireevsky, Yu.F.Samarin, A.N. Ostrovsky.
Slavophiles defended the idea of an independent path of Russian statehood, because The basis of the state’s existence is Orthodoxy, a communal way of life, and a special “Russian” mentality of people. They argued that attempts to carry out reforms and bring Russia into Western similarity would end in tragedy for the Russian people.
Orthodox monarchical philosophy defended the interests of the autocracy, its socio-political and moral order, and religious foundations (N.V. Fedorov, K.N. Leontyev).
Representatives of the philosophical religious movement were Russian writers F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy. They saw the future of Russia in the development of national traditions, customs, religion and spirituality.
A special role in Dostoevsky’s philosophy is occupied by the problem of man, his place in life. He argued that in his actions a person should follow the path shown to him by God.
L.N. Tolstoy, as a result of his creativity, became the author of the doctrine called Tolstoyism. In it, he called for abandoning violence, transforming religion, making it accessible to ordinary people, the state is recognized as an obsolete institution, because is an apparatus of violence, the meaning of human life is improvement.
A prominent representative of the revolutionary-democratic philosophy of the 19th century is N.G. Chernyshevsky. He believed that nature develops from lower to higher, and man is a biological being and part of nature. From his point of view, knowledge is carried out in sensory and logical forms. Practice is defined as the activity of transforming nature. The core of Chernyshevsky’s ethical doctrine was the theory of “reasonable egoism,” which gives preference to reason over will. Selfishness is perceived as a natural property, and goodness is a property that is useful to most people. His social views are radical and utopian: he idealized the peasant community, and considered the peasantry to be the main revolutionary force.
The liberal direction in Russian philosophy was final in the 19th century. Its most prominent representative was V.S. Soloviev. The main ideas of his philosophy: conciliarity, unity, the idea of progress as a universal connection of generations, the idea of morality as the main aspect of human life, the idea of God as an expression of good, the doctrine of God-manhood, the doctrine of integral knowledge, the Russian national idea.
The first quarter of the 19th century in Russia was a search for ways to form national identity and the further development of Russian society and Russian statehood, the impetus for all this was primarily the Patriotic War of 1912 and the subsequent European campaign of the Russian army, which reached Paris. The most radical socio-political conclusions from the analysis of these events and Russian feudal reality were made by the Decembrists. In the works of such Decembrists as P. Pestel, N. Muravyov, I. Yakushkin, M. Lunin, I. Kireevsky and a number of others, the idea of the connection between philosophy and politics, ideological beliefs and ethics of public behavior is developed, and the ideal of a human citizen is substantiated.
The most striking and original figure in the philosophical and sociological thought of Russia at that time was P. Chaadaev. The main directions of his philosophy were the philosophy of man and the philosophy of history. Man, according to Chaadaev, is a combination of material and spiritual substance. Human life is possible only in a collective, and therefore collective / social / consciousness completely determines the individual, subjective. Therefore, Chaadaev opposed individualism, egoism, and the opposition of private, narrowly selfish interests to public interests.
As for the historical process, according to Chaadaev, it is based on Divine Providence / Divine Will /, the embodiment of which / which / is Christianity, and therefore it is the core, the engine of history. As for the history of Russia, according to Chaadaev, Russia seemed to “fall out” of the world historical process and this is explained primarily by its geographical location, i.e. combining European and Asian culture on its territory. Hence, the future of Russia is to return to the world historical field, to master the values of the West, but thanks to its centuries-old uniqueness, to fulfill a historical mission within the framework of universal civilization.
Chaadaev’s ideas, in particular his thoughts on the specifics of Russian history, had a great resonance and primarily influenced the development of two main trends in the culture and philosophy of Russia in the 19th century - the “Slavic-philes” and the “Westerners”. The ideologists of Slavophilism were A. Khomyakov, I. Kireevsky, Yu. Samarin, brothers K. and I. Aksakov.
From the point of view of the Slavophiles, philosophy is only a form of connection between religion and life. Hence, they consider the historical process from the position that its driving force is the “integral mind” of the people, which in turn is determined primarily by the dominant religious faith. Therefore, the basis of Russia’s historical existence is Orthodoxy and a communal way of life. And the Russian people are fundamentally different from the peoples of the West. The West, where Catholicism and Protestantism predominate, is infected with individualism and rationalism, and hence the spiritual emptiness of Western Europeans. The Russian people are God’s chosen people, since they have retained the “inner integrity of the spirit,” as well as holiness, conciliarity, piety, and collectivism. Slavophiles idealize pre-Petrine Rus' and criticize Peter the Great for the policy of Europeanization of Russia. In their opinion, any reforms or attempts to implant Western traditions on Russian soil sooner or later ended tragically for Russia. Therefore, it is only necessary to develop the communal principle in its “holy” pre-Petrine forms, reforming only the ugly legal form of serfdom.
The “Westerners,” whose prominent representatives were N. Granovsky, K. Kavelin, V. Belinsky, N. Ogarev, A. Herzen, well mastered the philosophical traditions of contemporary Western philosophy and tried to bring them into Russian philosophy. They believed that there was no “unique” historical path for Russia, separate from the rest of civilization. Russia has simply lagged behind world civilization and has become self-contained. Therefore, they connected the development of Russia with the assimilation of the historical achievements of Western Europe, considering the Western path of development to be the path of universal civilization. Hence, it is good for Russia to master Western values and become a normal civilized country. In short, if the Slavophiles exaggerated, the Westerners underestimated the historical and national uniqueness of Russia.
In contrast to those areas of philosophy that did not agree with the official ideology, the main slogan of which was: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality,” the religious direction of philosophy played a certain role, prominent representatives of which were N. Fedorov and K. Leontiev. According to Fedorov, the world is one. Nature / the surrounding world /, God, man are one and interconnected, and the connecting link between them is will and reason. God, man and nature mutually influence each other, complement each other and constantly exchange energy, and are based on a single world mind. Fedorov considered the “moment of truth” of human life to be its finitude, and the greatest evil to be death. The philosopher believed that humanity can solve the main problem of victory over death. And this victory will occur not by eradicating death as a biological act /this is impossible/, but by finding ways to reproduce life, to revive. Jesus Christ gave hope for the possibility of revival.
Another representative of the religious direction of Russian philosophy of the second half of the 19th century was K. Leontiev. One of the main directions of his philosophy is criticism of the negative phenomena of Russian life. The focus of this critique was developmental capitalism. According to Leontyev, capitalism is the kingdom of “rudeness and meanness,” the path to the degeneration of the people and the death of Russia. Salvation for Russia is the rejection of capitalism, isolation from Western Europe and its transformation into a closed Orthodox Christian center /in the image of Byzantium/. In addition to Orthodoxy, the key factors in the life of a saved Russia should be autocracy, communalism, and strict class division.
The philosophical views of two great Russian writers, F. Dostoevsky and L. Tolstoy, largely coincided with the direction of religious philosophy. In many ways, aligned with Slavophilism, Dostoevsky saw the future of Russia in relying on the Russian “national soil” - customs, traditions. A key role both in the fate of the entire people and in the fate of an individual should be played by religion (in this case, Orthodoxy). It is on religion that human spirituality rests; it is it that protects a person from sin and evil. The problem of man plays a special role in Dostoevsky’s philosophical views (which permeates all of his literary work). Dostoevsky identified two options for the life path that a person can follow: the path of man-deity and the path of the god-man. The first path is the path of absolute human freedom. A person rejects all authorities, including God, and believes he has the right to do whatever he wants, i.e. trying to become God, as it were, instead of God. This path, according to Dostoevsky, is disastrous both for the watchman and for his environment. The second path is the path of the God-man - the path of following God, striving for Him in all one’s habits and actions. This path is the most faithful, righteous and saving for man.
As for L. Tolstoy, he created a special religious and philosophical doctrine - Tolstoyism. The brief essence of this doctrine is as follows: religion should become simple and accessible to the people, and therefore the church hierarchy becomes practically unnecessary; God is goodness, love and conscience; the meaning of life is spiritual self-improvement; since the main evil is violence, it is necessary to abandon violence as a way to solve any problems; the basis of human behavior should be non-resistance to evil; the state as an apparatus of violence is an outdated social institution, and therefore has no right to exist.
One of the most meaningful stages in the development of Russian philosophy in this century was the philosophy of the revolutionary-democratic direction. It was quite motley, because under this banner N. Chernyshevsky, and the populists - N. Mikhailovsky, P. Lavrov, P. Tkachev, and anarchists - M. Bakunin and P. Kropotkin, and the Marxist G. Plekhanov united under this banner. What was the unifying principle of all these thinkers? This is a rejection of the existing economic and socio-political system of Russia. But they saw ways of changing this system differently.
As a thinker, N. Chernyshevsky stood on the platform of anthropological materialism of the Feuerbachian type, and therefore believed that all nature develops from the lowest to the highest, and man is the highest product of nature. The core of Chernyshevsky’s ethical doctrine was the theory of “reasonable egoism,” which gives preference to reason over will, enlightenment over moral improvement. In this doctrine, selfishness was considered a natural property, and goodness was reduced to behavior that is useful to the maximum number of people. Chernyshevsky's social views were radical; he idealized the peasant community, and saw the peasant revolution as a panacea for all social ills.
Representatives of populism advocated a direct transition to socialism, bypassing capitalism and relying on the identity of the Russian people. In their opinion, all means are possible to overthrow the existing system and transition to socialism, and the most effective of them is political terror. Unlike the populists, the anarchists did not see any point in preserving any kind of state as a mechanism of suppression.
Marxist philosophy in Russia was represented primarily by G. Plekhanov. But in general, Russian Marxism is a multifaceted phenomenon that absorbed and reflected the entire complexity of the process of development of Russia at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. One of the features of Marxism in Russia was its practical orientation, associated with the task of changing the socio-political system. And the first Russian Marxist who took up the theoretical substantiation of this task was Plekhanov, having made a tortuous path from a populist to a Marxist. In his works, Plekhanov pays a lot of attention to issues of the materialist understanding of history, problems of historical necessity, freedom of the theory of class struggle, as well as moral and ethical problems. In the theory of knowledge, Plekhanov defends the principle of the knowability of the world and the existence of objective truth, which he presents as a process.
In his understanding of history, Plekhanov shares the views of K. Marx, considering the universal cause of social movements to be the development of productive forces, the change of which determines changes in social relations. The creator of history for Plekhanov is the masses, but at the same time he also shows the role of the individual in the historical process.
The development of Russian philosophy of the 19th century completes the work of V.S. Solovyova. He was not only an outstanding thinker, but also a talented poet, publicist, and literary critic. Solovyov's philosophical concept is built according to a historical scheme as the history of the development of the world spirit, as a theo-cosmo-historical process. Nature, according to Solovyov’s concept, is simultaneously multiple and united. Diversity in nature is, in essence, a repetition of the original diversity in the sphere of ideas. And in this sense, nature in its essence does not differ from the Absolute /God/. She is his “other.” In nature there are the same elements as in the Origin, but they are in it “in an improper relationship”: mutual repression, enmity and struggle, “internal discord” reveal the dark basis in nature, the chaotic principle that is characteristic of “extra-divine existence” . At the same time, the forces raging in nature do not destroy it; nature maintains its unity, chaos is constantly tamed by nature itself, which is, on the whole, the true cosmos.
Speaking about man, who is “the center of the universal consciousness of nature,” Soloviev notes that he simultaneously belongs to two worlds - the world of sensual, concretely perceived things and the world of ideas. Soloviev emphasizes the divine essence of man: “Man not only has that inner essence of life - the unity that God has, but he is free to desire it, like God, i.e. can assert itself separately from God, outside of God, since it has free will.” Freedom for Solovyov is a necessary basis, and equality is its necessary form. And the goal of a normal society and law is the public good.
The goal of world history, according to Solovyov, is the unity of God and the extra-divine world, led by humanity. The moral meaning of the individual is to be a link between the divine and natural worlds. This principle is put into practice in the act of love for another person, for nature, for God. Therefore, there cannot be a full-fledged personality without “dominant love.” The evidence of its final triumph is the person of Christ.
Russian philosophy of the 19th century represents the diversity of domestic political teachings and ideological positions. The century before last gave the world such thinkers as M.A. Bakunin, I.V. Kireevsky, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.S. Khomyakov, K.S. Aksakov, T.N. Granovsky, A.I. Herzen, L.N. Tolstoy, K.N. Leontyev, V.G. Belinsky, N.V. Fedorov, as well as many other prominent theorists.
Russian philosophy of the 19th century is a reflection of the ideological quests of scientists who belonged to two opposing movements - Westernism and Slavophilism. Supporters of the latter direction talked about the originality of the development of the domestic state, cultivated Orthodoxy, seeing in it enormous potential for the social future of the country. The specifics of this religion, in their opinion, should have allowed it to become a unifying force that would help solve many problems of society.
Political ideas became a natural continuation of faith in the miraculous power of Orthodoxy. Russian philosophers of the 19th century, who belonged to Slavophilism, considered the monarchical form of government to be the best option for the development of the domestic state. This is not surprising, because the reason for the introduction of Orthodoxy in Rus' was the need to strengthen the autocracy. Supporters of this trend included K.S. Aksakov, I.V. Kireevsky,
Russian philosophy of the 19th century is also characterized by the political and moral views of Westerners. Supporters of secular atheism and materialism revered the works of Hegel, adhered to democratic views and advocated a radical overthrow of the existing government. Revolutionary sentiments were supported by the followers of this movement to varying degrees, but the idea of overcoming autocracy was supported to the same extent.
Westerners became the founders of Russian enlightenment and advocated the enrichment of Russian culture. Supporters of this direction also considered the development of science a priority. In the works of M.A. Bakunina, V.G. Belinsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky are revealed. The vision of each author has its own specifics, but similar thoughts can be traced in the works of theorists.
Russian philosophy of the 19th century represents the most valuable layer of Russian history. Today, political and social reality continues to demonstrate vivid examples of the confrontation between concepts that originated more than a century and a half ago.
Knowledge of the history of the formation and development of ideas that characterized culture allows us to see in a new light such a modern phenomenon as the introduction of defense industrial complex in schools. The supporters of this reform are the current followers of the Slavophiles, and the opposition is the Westerners of the 21st century. The difference between the state of affairs in Russia of the past and today is that previously the opposing currents were clearly defined and did not mix. In the present, the phenomena are not so clear: for example, “Slavophile reality” may be hidden behind the Westernized formulation. For example, the “fundamental law” of the country of Russia is proclaimed, which does not prevent representatives of the Orthodox religion from enjoying special privileges.
Russian philosophy of the XIX-XX centuries
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Plan
Introduction
1. Slavophilism and Westernism
2. Populists and Pochvenniks
3. Philosophy of unity
4. Russian religious philosophy of the late XIX - early XX centuries
5. Russian Marxism
6. Philosophy in Soviet and post-Soviet Russia
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
In the formation and formation of human spiritual culture, philosophy has always played a special role associated with its centuries-old experience of critically reflective reflection on deep values and life orientations. At all times and eras, philosophers have taken upon themselves the function of clarifying the problems of human existence, raising the question of what a person is, how he should live, what to focus on, how to behave during periods of cultural crises.
Philosophy is an expression of the spiritual experience of a nation, its intellectual potential, embodied in the diversity of cultural creations. A synthesis of philosophical and historical knowledge, which aims not to describe historical facts and events, but to reveal their inner meaning.
Russian philosophy is relatively young. It has absorbed the best philosophical traditions of European and world philosophy. In its content, it addresses both the whole world and the individual and is aimed both at changing and improving the world (which is characteristic of the Western European tradition) and the person himself (which is characteristic of the Eastern tradition). At the same time, this is a very original philosophy, which includes all the drama of the historical development of philosophical ideas, the confrontation of opinions, schools and trends. Here Westerners and Slavophiles, conservatism and revolutionary democracy, materialism and idealism, religious philosophy and atheism coexist and enter into dialogue with each other. No fragments can be excluded from its history and its holistic content - this only leads to the impoverishment of its content.
Russian philosophy developed in co-creation, but also in a certain<<оппозиции>> to the philosophy of the West.
Russian philosophers did not accept the ideal of consumerism, well-fed well-being, just as they did not accept the positivist-rationalistic model of man, contrasting all this with their own view, their vision of reality.
The central idea of Russian philosophy was the search and justification of the special place and role of Russia in the common life and fate of mankind. And this is important for understanding Russian philosophy, which really has its own special features precisely due to the uniqueness of its historical development.
All of the above does not raise doubts about the relevance of this topic and the need for its research. To explore this topic, let's look at Russian philosophy of the 19th - 20th centuries. according to the main historical stages of development, within each stage, we will highlight prominent representatives of philosophical movements of that time, the essence of their philosophical ideas and teachings, and the directions of their philosophical quests.
1. Slavophilism and Westernism
The 19th and 20th centuries were the era of the awakening of independent philosophical thought in Russia, the emergence of new trends in philosophy, demonstrating the extreme diversity of approaches to the problem of man. Over the centuries, spiritual attitudes and prevailing ideological trends have changed. However, the theme of man remained unchanged; it served as the foundation for a variety of theoretical quests.
The panorama of human concepts created in these centuries is vast. It includes representatives of various philosophical movements.
Thus, Russian philosophy appears before us as a history of the struggle of two opposite directions: the desire to organize life in a European way and the desire to protect traditional forms of national life from foreign influence, as a result of which two philosophical and ideological directions arose: Slavophilism and Westernism.
The beginning of independent philosophical thought in Russia is associated with Slavophilism. The founders of this movement are A.S. Khomyakov (1804 - 1861) and I.V. Kireevsky (1806 - 1856). They openly opposed their way of philosophizing, which presupposes the unity of mind, will and feelings, to the Western, one-sidedly rationalistic. The spiritual basis of Slavophilism was Orthodox Christianity, from the position of which they criticized the materialism and classical idealism of Kant and Hegel. The Slavophiles put forward an original doctrine of conciliarity, the unification of people on the basis of the highest spiritual and religious values - love and freedom.
Slavophiles saw the incurable vice of the West in the class struggle, selfishness, and the pursuit of material values. They associated the uniqueness of Russia with the absence of irreconcilable class contradictions in its history and in the organization of the people's life of the Slavs on the basis of the peasant land community. These ideas found support and sympathy among subsequent generations of Russian religious philosophers (N.F. Fedorov, Vl. Solovyov, N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, etc.).
Another direction, opposite to the Slavophiles, was defended in disputes by Westerners, who believed that Russia should and could reach the same stage of development as the West. It is good for Russia to master Western values and become a normal civilized country. The founder of Westernism should be recognized as the Russian thinker P.Ya. Chaadaev (1794 - 1856), the author of the famous<<Философических писем>>, in which he expressed many bitter truths about the cultural and socio-historical backwardness of Russia.
Prominent representatives of Westerners were F.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev, K.D. Kavelin, V.G. Belinsky.
The range of philosophical views of prominent representatives of Westernism was wide. Chaadaev was influenced by the late Schelling, his<<философии откровения>>. The views of Belinsky and Herzen underwent a complex evolution - from idealism (Hegelianism) to anthropological materialism, when they recognized themselves as students and followers of Feuerbach.
The dispute between the Slavophiles and Westernism was resolved in the 19th century in favor of the latter. However, not only the Slavophiles lost (in the middle of the century), the populists also lost (by the end of the century): Russia then followed the Western path, i.e. capitalist path of development.
2. Populists and Pochvenniks
In Russia, the trend of populism grew out of the teachings of A.I. Herzen about<<русском>>, i.e. peasant socialism. Capitalism was condemned by the populists and assessed as a reactionary, backward movement in socio-economic and cultural terms.
The main exponents of this worldview were M.K. Mikhailovsky, P.L. Lavrov, P.A. Tkachev, M.A. Bakunin.
Just like Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) was guided by “Russian socialism” and the revolutionary transformation of society. He expressed the interests of the oppressed peasantry and considered the masses as the main driving force of history and, being an optimist, he believed in progress humanity. Chernyshevsky consciously placed his philosophical concept at the service of revolutionary democracy. In the field of philosophy, he took the position of materialism, believing that nature exists outside consciousness, and emphasized the indestructibility of matter.
Chernyshevsky’s ideas were formed by him and formed the basis of an ideological movement such as populism. Chernyshevsky is considered the founder of this movement. Populism promoted and defended the “Russian” (non-capitalist) path of development towards socialism. The rural community was recognized as the economic and moral and spiritual basis of Russian, or peasant, socialism. The main feature of the ideology of populism was the desire to achieve socialism, bypassing capitalism.
The continuers of Slavophilism in the 60-70s. In the 19th century, soil scientists appeared. The main idea of their philosophical quest is “national soil” as the basis for the development of Russia. All Pochvenniks were united by the religious nature of their worldview. Actually<< национальной почвой >> for them the ideals and values of Orthodoxy appeared. The main representatives of this direction are A.A. Grigoriev, N.N. Strakhov, F.N. Dostoevsky.
The most profound thinker and main exponent of the ideas of the Pochvenniks was F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881), although he is not a philosopher and did not create purely philosophical works, his philosophy is a philosophy of experiencing the actions and thoughts of the literary heroes he created. Moreover, his works are so philosophical that they often do not fit into the framework of the literary and artistic genre.
One of the main problems that frightens Dostoevsky is whether the world and the actions of people can be justified even in the name of a bright future if it is built on the tear of at least one child. His answer here is unequivocal - no high goal can justify the violence and suffering of an innocent child. Thus, Dostoevsky was unable to reconcile God and the World he created. Dostoevsky saw the highest national destiny of Russia in the Christian reconciliation of peoples.
In Russia, Dostoevsky had a great influence on all subsequent developments of religious philosophy.
3. Philosophy of unity
The roots of the philosophical idea of unity go back centuries - to antiquity and the Renaissance. In Russian spirituality, the idea of this direction was revived and developed by V.S. Solovyov (1853 - 1900). V.S. Solovyov is the largest Russian, religious, Christian philosopher, who laid the foundation of religious Russian philosophy, the founder of the unity and integrity of knowledge. Philosophy V.S. Solovyov largely determines the entire spirit and appearance of the religious philosophical tradition.
Solovyov V.S. tried to create a holistic worldview system that would link together the needs of a person’s religious and social life. The basis of such a worldview, according to Solovyov’s plans, should be Christianity. Religious thinkers before and after Solovyov expressed this idea more than once, but when they spoke of Christianity as the basis of their worldview, they meant one Christian concession: Orthodoxy, Catholicism or Protestantism.
1. The main directions of Russian philosophyXIX century were:
Decembrist philosophy;
Philosophy of Westerners and Slavophiles;
Philosophy of Chaadaev;
Conservative religious and monarchical philosophy;
Philosophy of the system of writers F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy;
Revolutionary-democratic philosophy;
Liberal philosophy.
2. Decembrist philosophy was represented by the works of P. Pestel, N. Muravyov, I. Yakushkin, M. Lunin, I. Kireevsky, V. Kuchelbecker and others.
The main focus of the philosophy of the Decembrists is socio-political. Its guiding ideas were:
Priority of natural law;
The need for Russia to have a legal system;
Abolition of serfdom and provision of land to those who work on it;
Personal freedom of a person;
Limiting autocracy by law and representative bodies or replacing it with a republic.
3. Historical philosophy was represented by creativity P.Ya. Chaadaeva(1794 - 1856).
Main directions his philosophies were:
Philosophy of man;
Philosophy of history.
Man, according to Chaadaev, is a combination of material and spiritual substances. Human life is possible only in a team. Being in a collective (society) from birth until death, a person becomes a person and grows as an individual. Collective (social) consciousness completely determines the individual, subjective. Living in a group is the main factor that distinguishes humans from animals. Chaadaev opposed individualism, egoism, and the opposition of private, narrowly selfish interests to public ones.
According to Chaadaev, basically historical process lies Divine Providence. The embodiment of the Divine Yule is Christianity.
Christianity is the core, the engine of history.
As for the history of Russia, according to Chaadaev, Russia “fell out” of the world historical process. The future of Russia, according to Chaadaev, is to return to the world historical field, to master the values of the West, but thanks to its centuries-old uniqueness, to fulfill a historical mission within the framework of universal civilization.
One of the main factors influencing history and the fate of states and peoples, according to the philosopher, is geographical. Chaadaev believed that the main reasons that gave rise to despotic autocracy, the dictates of the central government, and serfdom were the vast expanses of Russia, incommensurable with other countries.
4. Problems of history and the choice of a historical path for Russia were dealt with representatives of the philosophical trends of "Westerners" and Slavophiles.
Prominent representatives of Westerners were A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev, K.D. Kavelin, V.G. Belinsky.
Westerners They well mastered the philosophical traditions of contemporary Western philosophy (materialism, empiricism) and tried to bring them into Russian philosophy.
According to Westerners, there is no “unique” historical path for Russia, separate from the rest of civilization. Russia simply fell behind world civilization and became mothballed within itself.
It is good for Russia to master Western values and become a normal civilized country.
The opponents of the Westerners were Slavophiles. Their leaders were A.S. Khomyakov, I.V. Kireevsky, Yu.F. Samarin, A.N. Ostrovsky, brothers KS. and I.S. Aksakovs.
According to the Slavophiles, the basis of the historical existence of Russia is Orthodoxy and the communal way of life, and the Russian people are fundamentally different in their mentality from the peoples of the West (holiness, conciliarity, piety, collectivism, mutual assistance against the lack of spirituality, individualism, competition of the West).
In their opinion, any reforms or attempts to implant Western traditions on Russian soil sooner or later ended tragically for Russia.
5. In contrast to the philosophy of the Decembrists and other areas of philosophy that do not agree with the official ideology, the so-called orthodox-monarchical philosophy. Its goals are to defend the existing socio-political and moral order and to neutralize oppositional philosophy. Its main slogan in the middle of the 19th century. was: "Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality." An important role in orthodox-monarchical philosophy played religious direction. Its prominent representatives were N.V. Fedorov, K.N. Leontyev.
N.V. Fedorov(1828 - 1903) made the main themes of his philosophy:
Unity of the World;
The problem of life and death;
The problem of morality and the correct (moral) way of life. According to Fedorov, the world is one. Nature (the world around us),
God and man are one and interconnected; the connecting link between them is will and reason. God, man and nature mutually influence each other, complement each other and constantly exchange energy, and are based on a single world mind.
Fedorov considered the “moment of truth” of human life to be its finitude, and the greatest evil to be death. Humanity must put aside all strife and unite to solve the most important task - victory over death.
The philosopher believed in such a perspective. According to Fedorov, victory over death is possible in the future, as science and technology develop, but it will not happen by eradicating death as a phenomenon (since this is impossible), but by finding ways to reproduce life, to revive it.
According to Fedorov, Jesus Christ gave hope for the possibility of revival.
Fedorov's philosophy calls for the rejection of hostility, rudeness, confrontation between people and for the recognition by all of the highest images of morality. The moral life of all people without exception, according to Fedorov, is the path to solving all problems and universal happiness. According to the philosopher, both extreme egoism and altruism are unacceptable in human behavior. It is necessary to live “with everyone and for everyone.”
Another representative of the religious direction of Russian philosophy was K.N. Leontyev(1831 - 1891).
One of the main directions of Leontiev's philosophy is criticism of the negative phenomena of Russian life. The focus of this critique was developmental capitalism. According to Leontyev, capitalism is the kingdom of “rudeness and meanness,” the path to the degeneration of the people and the destruction of Russia. Salvation for Russia is the rejection of capitalism, isolation from Western Europe and its transformation into a closed Orthodox Christian center (in the image of Byzantium). In addition to Orthodoxy, the key factors in the life of a saved Russia should be autocracy, communalism, and strict class division.
Leontyev compared the historical process with human life. Like human life, the history of every nation and state arises, reaches maturity and dies out.
If a state does not strive to preserve itself, it perishes. The key to preserving the state is internal despotic unity. The goal of preserving the state justifies violence, injustice, and slavery.
According to Leontyev, inequality between people is the desire of God and therefore it is natural and justified. 6. Representatives of the philosophical religious trend were also famous Russian writers - F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy, who left, in addition to the literary, a great philosophical legacy.
F.M. Dostoevsky(1821 - 1881) saw the future of Russia neither in capitalism nor in socialism, but in relying on the Russian “national soil” - customs, traditions.
Religion must play a key role both in the fate of the state and in the fate of the individual. It is on religion that human spirituality rests; it is a “shell” that protects a person from sins and evil.
The problem of man plays a special role in Dostoevsky’s philosophical views (which permeate all of his literary work). Dostoevsky highlighted two life path options along which a person can walk:
The path of man-deity;
The path of the god-man.
The path of man-deity is the path of absolute human freedom. A person rejects all authorities, including God, considers his possibilities limitless, and himself the right to do everything, he himself tries to become God, instead of God. According to Dostoevsky, this path is destructive and dangerous both for others and for the person himself. Anyone who walks on it will fail.
The second path of the god-man is the path of following God, striving for him in all his habits and actions. Dostoevsky considered this path to be the most faithful, righteous and saving for man.
7. Another famous Russian writer, L.N. Tolstoy(1828 - 1910), created a special religious and philosophical doctrine - Tolstoyanism. The essence of Tolstoyism in the following:
Many religious dogmas must be criticized and rejected, as well as pompous ceremony, cults, hierarchy;
Religion must become simple and accessible to the people;
God, religion is goodness, love, reason and conscience;
The meaning of life is self-improvement;
The main evil on Earth is death and violence;
It is necessary to abandon violence as a way to solve any problems;
The basis of human behavior should be non-resistance to evil;
The state is an obsolete institution and, since it is an apparatus of violence, has no right to exist;
Everyone needs to undermine the state in every possible way, ignore it - do not go to work as officials, do not participate in political life, etc.
For his religious and philosophical views in 1901 L.N. Tolstoy was subjected to anathema (curse) and excommunicated from the Church.
8. Representatives revolutionary-democratic direction of Russian philosophyXIX century were:
N.G. Chernyshevsky;
Populists - N.K. Mikhailovsky, M.A. Bakunin, P.L. Lavrov, PN. Tkachev;
Anarchist P. Kropotkin;
Marxist G.V. Plekhanov.
The common feature of these directions is socio-political orientation. All representatives of these movements rejected the existing socio-political and economic system, and saw the future differently.
N.G. Chernyshevsky saw a way out of the crisis of early capitalism in a “return to the land” (to the idea of agrarian Russia), personal freedom and a communal way of life.
The populists advocated a direct transition to socialism, bypassing capitalism and relying on the identity of the Russian people. In their opinion, all means are possible to overthrow the existing system and transition to socialism, the most effective of which is terror.
Unlike the populists, the anarchists did not see any point in preserving the state and considered the state (the mechanism of suppression) the source of all ills.
Marxists saw the future of Russia in accordance with the teachings of K. Marx and F. Engels as socialist, with predominant state ownership.
9. Completes the philosophical tradition of the 19th century. liberal direction.
Its most prominent representative was the Russian philosopher B.C. Soloviev(1853 - 1900).
Core ideals his philosophies were:
The idea of unity - the unification and harmony of all aspects of existence (material, spiritual, etc.);
The idea of morality as the main aspect of human life (the lowest level of morality is law, the highest is love);
The idea of progress - as a universal connection of generations;
The idea of the resurrection of everyone, both the living (spiritual resurrection) and the dead (bodily-spiritual), as the main goal towards which humanity should strive;
The idea of God as an expression of goodness;
The idea of a “god-man” is a person’s life path, which is based on following God, goodness, and morality;
The idea of Sophia is universal Divine wisdom;
Russian idea, consisting, according to Solovyov, of three ideas: “Holy Rus'” (Moscow - the Third Rome), “Great Rus'” (the reforms of Peter I) and “Free Rus'” (the spirit of the Decembrists and Pushkin).