Hegel the identity of being and thinking dialectics. The principle of the identity of thinking and being
Hegel and Schelling: the beginning
Hegel does not recognize Schelling's idea that the beginning must be thought of as the absolute identity of the objective and the subjective. This is due to the fact that with such an identity, any possible difference between them disappears, which for Hegel is impossible.
Definition 1
difference and identity- these are two dialectical opposites that are inseparable from each other.
The original identity, which forms the substantial basis of all that exists, according to Hegel, is the identity of being and thinking. It is in this identity that one immediately sees the difference between the subjective and the objective.
Remark 1
However, this difference exists only in thinking. According to Hegel, thinking is a subjective human activity, which is also an objective entity independent of a person, which is the fundamental principle, the primary source of everything that really exists.
Hegel believes that thinking "alienates" its being through nature, matter, which are the otherness of this really existential thinking, which is the Absolute Idea.
Being
Hegel considers thinking and being as products and conditions for the existence of an absolute idea. Being is dynamic, as a result of which the absolute idea is the developing content of an integral world process.
Absolute should be understood as a prerequisite and as a result of everything that exists. This is the highest stage of development of everything being. Thus, the absolute spirit is human history, humanity, which constitutes the highest stage in the development of the absolute idea.
Being is nothing else but an integral part of the absolute idea, which consists in a harmonious and ideal essence - the absolute spirit. These two concepts are interrelated and give rise to each other. Subjective and objective are two sides of the same process - being, which is integral in philosophical tradition Hegel.
Thinking
Thinking is a reflection of objective reality. In addition, since this is an objective reality, we can talk about a reasonable and rational view of the world. Nevertheless, Hegel identifies the reflection of reality and that which is reflected - objective reality.
The identity of the diverse world of phenomena with the world mind is a process of thinking that contains the entire content of the diversity of reality, which is called the absolute idea. On the one hand, this concept is completely filled with historical reality and natural reality, and on the other hand, it turns out to be a completely refined idea of the Deity.
Remark 2
The main mental form is the concept. Since Hegel makes of thinking the Absolute, he deifies the concept in this way. According to his teaching, the concept is the beginning of any life and is an eternal creative form.
Hegel is a prominent representative of the philosophy of anti-materialism. He believes that being is the embodiment of concepts, thinking, ideas.
Thus, the end product of Hegel's philosophical tradition is the idealistic identification of being and thinking. All processes will be reduced to the thought process. Real story comes down to the history of knowledge, and the deepening and growth of knowledge about the world order is the development of reality itself.
Anthropological materialism L. Feuerbach. criticism of religion. Sensational theory of knowledge.
Formation of the philosophy of Marxism. The problem of alienation. Historiosophical views of K. Marx and his development of materialistic dialectics. Social philosophy of K. Marx and F. Engels.
Tasks for the seminar
1. Key words: anthropological materialism, absolute idea, basis, hegemonism, dialectical materialism, ideology, "other being", irrationalism, historical materialism, superstructure, objectification, alienation, practice, deobjectification, triad, phenomenology.
2. Among the concepts listed below specify those that are the categories of G. Hegel's dialectics:
a. identity
b. contradiction
c. quantity
d. quality
f. absolute idea
g. relative idea
h. space
i. difference
j. matter
3. List socio-economic formations that Karl Marx singled out. explain what is the reason for their change.
Questions for self-control
- How does Immanuel Kant view the process of cognition?
- What's happened transcendental subject in the philosophy of I. Kant?
- Explain the concepts of "transcendental", "immanent", "transcendental".
- What is the categorical imperative of I. Kant?
- What is the essence of natural philosophy G.W.F. Schelling?
- What is the "absolute Idea" according to Georg Hegel?
- How is the process of self-development of the Absolute proceeding?
- What is the source of development and self-development in the teachings of G. Hegel?
- How does Ludwig Feuerbach explain the origin of religion?
- What is the essence of "religious alienation" in the teachings of L. Feuerbach?
- How does the anthropological principle manifest itself in Feuerbach's theory of knowledge?
- What is the criticism of Hegelian dialectics by K. Marx and F. Engels?
- What is the essence of K. Marx's doctrine of alienation?
- What is the materialistic understanding of the history of K. Marx?
Topic #8: Becoming not classical philosophy.
Positivism. Pragmatism. Neo-Kantianism (4)
Basic principles and directions of non-classical philosophy. Scientism and anti-scientism. The main stages in the development of positivism.
2. The positivism of O. Comte. A program for the transformation of science into philosophy. The law of "three stages" O. Comte. The positivism of J. St. Mill and G. Spencer. Evolutionism and sociology of G. Spencer.
The second "positivism (empirio-criticism). Features of empirio-criticism. The program of "purification of experience" by R. Avenarius. The theory of "neutral elements of experience" by E. Mach.
Synthesis of European philosophical ideas in pragmatism (C. Pierce, W. James, J. Dewey).
Neo-Kantianism. The fate of the Kantian heritage in the Marburg (G.Kogen, P.Natorp) and Baden (W.Vindelband, G.Rikkert) schools.
Tasks for the seminar
1. Define the following terms Keywords: anti-scientism, metaphysics, Machism, positivism, rationalism, sociology, scientism, equilibrium theory, evolution, empirio-criticism, positivism, pragmatism, neo-Kantianism, utilitarianism, value.
2. Compare Marburg and Baden schools of neo-Kantianism and tell us about their differences from each other.
3. List the main stages in the development of positivism and give their brief description .
Questions for self-control
- What is the essence of scientism and anti-scientism?
- List and describe the main stages in the development of positivism.
- What is the program for O. Comte's transformation of science into philosophy?
- What is the meaning of Comte's law of "three stages"?
- What is the essence of Herbert Spencer's evolutionism?
- What characterizes empiriocriticism?
- What is the program of "purification of experience" by Richard Avenarius?
- Tell us about the theory of "neutral elements of experience" by Ernst Mach.
- How and what European philosophical ideas synthesized in pragmatism?
Topic No. 9: Philosophy of life and phenomenology (2)
The irrationalism of Arthur Schopenhauer. The world as will and representation.
Philosophy of Life Friedrich Nietzsche. The concept of "life and" the will to power ". Nietzsche's irrationalism in the theory of knowledge. The concept of the superman. Nietzsche's criticism of Christianity.
Intuitionism and "creative evolution" of Henri Bergson.
Phenomenology of Edmund Husserl. Husserl's development of ontological and epistemological problems. The concept of "life world".
Tasks for the seminar
1. Define the following terms: "will to power", " lifeworld”, intentionality, intuition, irrationalism, nihilism, “creative evolution”, phenomenology, phenomenological reduction.
2. Tell about the specifics of understanding "life" in the philosophical concepts of F. Nietzsche, A. Bergson and V. Dilthey.
3. Tell, in which he saw the causes of the crisis of European sciences and European culture Edmund Husserl.
Questions for self-control
- What is the essence of the irrationalism of Arthur Schopenhauer?
- What are the ontological ideas of Arthur Schopenhauer?
- Tell us about the concepts of "life" and "will to power" in the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche?
- What is the essence of Nietzsche's irrationalism in the theory of knowledge?
- What is Nietzsche's idea of the superman?
- What was Nietzsche's criticism of Christianity?
- What are the main ideas of the theory " creative evolution» Henri Bergson?
- What are the main ontological and epistemological ideas of Edmund Husserl's phenomenology?
Topic #10: Existentialism (2)
General characteristics of existentialism. The concept of "existence".
Soren Kierkegaard as the founder of existentialism. Criticism of Georg Hegel's objectivism. Christian Existential Anthropology S. Kierkegaard.
The problem of personality and the meaning of life in the "philosophy of the absurd" by Albert Camus.
The Existential Dialectic of Jean-Paul Sartre.
Existential Ideas in the Works of Karl Jaspers, José Ortega y Gasset and Martin Heidegger.
Tasks for the seminar
1. Define the following terms Key words: absurdity, choice, responsibility, freedom, existence, essence, project, existence.
2. List the main existential ideas in the works of K. Jaspers, J. Ortega y Gasset and M. Heidegger.
3. Give general characteristics existentialism and tell about the specifics of existential directions.
4. Prepare messages about the following modern philosophical trends (optional):
a. hermeneutics
b. structuralism
c. postmodernism
Questions for self-control
- What is existence?
- What is the essence of Søren Kierkegaard's Christian-existential anthropology?
- What is the role of individual freedom in the "world of the absurd", according to Albert Camus?
- How does A. Camus formulate the meaning of human life in the "philosophy of the absurd"?
- Tell us about the existential dialectic of Jean Paul Sartre. What kinds of freedom are there? What is responsibility, choice, project?
- What is the meaning of the doctrine of genuine and inauthentic human existence?
Literature for Section II
1. Asmus V.F. ancient philosophy. M., 1976.
2. Asmus V.F. Historical and philosophical studies. M., 1984.
3. Bogomolov A.S. ancient philosophy. M., 1988.
4. Gulyga A.V. German classical philosophy. - M.: Nauka, 1964.
5. Dobrynina V.I. Philosophy of the 20th century. M., 1997.
1. Zotov A.F., Milvil Yu.K. Western philosophy of the XX century: In 2 vols. M., 1994.
2. Zotov A.F. Modern Western Philosophy. M., 2001.
6. History of philosophy. / Ed. V.P. Kokhanovsky, V.P. Yakovlev. Rostov-on-Don, 2002.
7. History of Philosophy: West - Russia - East. In 4 volumes. Ed. N. Motroshilova. M., 1995.
8. Copleston F. History of Philosophy 20th century. M., 2002.
9. Kuznetsov V.N. German classical philosophy of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. M., 1983.
10. Narsky I.S. Western European philosophy 19th century. M., 1976.
11. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy. In 2 vols. M., 1991.
12. Reale J., Antiseri D. Western philosophy from its origins to the present day. In 4 vols. M., 1996.
13. Skirbek G., Gilier N. History of Philosophy. M., 2003.
14. Sokolov V.V. European philosophy of the 15th-17th centuries. M., 1984.
15. Sokolov V.V. medieval philosophy. M., 1979.
16. Middle Ages. SPb., 1994.
17. Tarnas R. History (passion) of Western thinking. M., 1995.
18. Chanyshev A.N. A course of lectures on ancient and medieval philosophy. M., 1981.
19. Chanyshev A.I. Philosophy ancient world. M., 2001.
Section III. History of Russian philosophy(10)
Topic No. 11: Russian philosophy of the XIX-XVIII centuries (4)
Formation of Russian philosophy. Christian and pagan elements in the spiritual culture of Rus'.
Philosophical ideas of Kievan Rus (XI-XIII centuries). The main ideas of theological and philosophical writings: Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace", Vl. Monomakh, "Prayer" by Daniil Zatochnik, "Izborniki" of 1073 and 1076.
Formation of Russian medieval philosophy in the XIV-XVII centuries. The emergence of early heresies (non-possessors, Josephites, etc.). The development of hesychasm in Rus', its main theoretical provisions and significance for Russian culture.
4. Philosophical trends of the 18th century: “philosophy of mind” (M. Lomonosov, A. Kantemir, V. Tatishchev); “philosophy of faith” (Russian Freemasonry), “philosophy of feeling” (M. Shcherbatov, N. Karamzin, A.N. Radishchev).
Tasks for the seminar
1. Define the following terms: Josephites, non-possessors, Old Believers, schism, freemasonry, hesychasm.
2. List three ways to justify the immortality of the soul, formulated by A.N. Radishchev. Compare these methods with the rationale for the immortality of the soul, offered by Western philosophers.
3. List features of the philosophical thought of the Russian Enlightenment.
Questions for self-control
- What is the difference between Russian philosophy and Western?
- What is the influence of Orthodoxy and pagan culture on Russian philosophy?
- What is the essence of the thesis “Moscow is the third Rome?
- What is the historiosophical orientation of Metropolitan Hilarion's book "The Sermon on Law and Grace"?
- What is the essence of the ideological dispute between the Josephites and non-possessors?
The basis of Hegel's philosophical views can be represented as follows. The whole world is a grandiose historical process of unfolding and realizing the possibilities of a certain world mind, spirit. The World Spirit is a completely objective, impersonal, ideal principle, acting as the basis and subject of development, the creator of the world as a whole. The general scheme of the creative activity of this impersonal ideal principle is called by Hegel Absolute Idea. Everything that exists in the world is only its pale reflection, the consequence and result of its activity. “The initial step is perfection, absolute totality, God. He was the creator, and sparks, lightning, reflections came from him, so that the first reflection was most similar to him. This first reflection, in turn, did not remain inactive and gave birth to other creations, but these creations were already less perfect, and so it continued further towards deterioration ... ”Hegel. Philosophy of nature. // Hegel. Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences. - M.: Thought, 1975. - T. 2. - p. 35, 36.
The process of unfolding the wealth of the world spirit (or absolute idea) includes three stages:
· Logic is impersonal, “pure”, i.e. non-objective thinking, constructing a system of logical categories out of itself;
· Nature - understood as the outer material shell of the idea, its opposite, "other being"; at this stage, a person also appears (as a part and completion of nature), ultimately overcoming the materiality of nature with his spiritual activity;
· Spirit - the history of human spiritual life proper, in which the development of the absolute idea continues, eventually reaching philosophy, which reveals the mysterious source of world development, i.e. absolute idea. The latter, as it were, returns in philosophy to itself, cognizes itself. This, according to Hegel, is the meaning and purpose of all the adventures of the world spirit, reason - in self-knowledge.
Thus, reality appears in Hegelian philosophy as the embodiment of spirit, reason, the universal ideal principle. In general, the design turned out to be, although solid, complete, but rather cumbersome, uncomfortable and not very intelligible: some kind of “spirit”, as in fairy tales, creating itself (and others) in a mystical way, and even striving for knowledge his creation "absolute idea", etc. Let's try to find some acceptable meaning in this bizarre Hegelian terminology.
If we slightly reflect on the structure of the universe as a whole, then it is easy to notice that the world in which we live is quite ordered, organized, expedient and logical in its own way, i.e. reasonable. All its constituent parts are somehow very well fitted to each other; in the phenomena of any nature, necessity, stability, repetition are found, otherwise - regularity. In other words, the world is dominated by a certain natural order and organization, expediency, which humanity is trying to understand and express as much as possible in scientific laws and whole theories (“... he [man] ... removes the cover of his living, blooming reality from the surrounding world and decomposes it in abstraction.”) 2 Hegel. Aesthetics: in 4 volumes - M .: Thought, 1968. - T. 1. - p. 60. At the same time, any theory, in view of the fundamentally irremovable limitations of human strengths and capabilities, is always relative, i.e. incomplete, inaccurate, approximate. But the world has nothing to do with our limited possibilities, it must exist and, obviously, exists in all the absolute fullness of its laws, organization and order. Therefore, there is some absolute, clearly surpassing in its parameters all conceivable reserves of human capabilities. What is the philosophical status of this absolute: can it be attributed to material or ideal objects? For Hegel, the "kinship" of the absolute principle of reality and human consciousness did not cause any doubts. He believed that the nature of reality, which forms the basis of our world, is spiritual, i.e. akin to thinking, reason, abstraction.
For the history of philosophy, such a conviction is far from new. In it one can find many attempts to capture, understand, or at least designate that ethereal reality that gives the world an orderly and regular order. In ancient Chinese philosophy, this reality was called "tao" (a certain unshakable order of the natural course of things); the ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras designated it with the word "nus" (mind); Plato used the concept of "eidos" (idea) for the same purpose. So Hegel, postulating the “world spirit” as a fundamental principle, did not discover special Americas. The originality of his constructions lay in something else: Hegel's "world mind" turned out as a result of some very lively, restless, searching, in general, very picturesque subject, despite all its impersonality. It is very dynamic, this “spirit”: it is constantly busy with reincarnation, being realized either in nature or in human history; sometimes it looks for its reflection in the mirror of art and religion, sometimes it contemplates itself in philosophical abstractions. But in the end, developing human history, the world spirit turns out to be a kind of “progressive” of the 19th century model, completely satisfied with the result of the work done.
The fundamental novelty of Hegelian philosophical thought consisted mainly in the following:
1) the idea of the progressive, consistent and regular (and not arbitrary) movement of the world spirit, and, consequently, the similar nature of all its incarnations: nature, history, art, science, religion, the individual himself;
2) discernment in the movement of the spirit of a clearly expressed dialectic and the development on this basis of a system of dialectical principles and categories;
3) consistent and unswerving implementation of the principle of historicism as applied to all conceivable areas of human knowledge.
The key to understanding the work of the German thinker is considered to be one of his early works, The Phenomenology of Spirit (1806), which is a kind of introduction to the Hegelian system. This is one of the most complex and most meaningful works of the German scientist. The content of this book is a peculiarly understood history of knowledge. But history is not in the usual sense of the word, but in the Hegelian, i.e. a certain scheme of logical knowledge from its lowest form - sensory certainty - to the maximum possible -"absolute knowledge". Let us not forget that, according to Hegel, human consciousness is a manifestation or embodiment of the world spirit. Only at first it (consciousness) is not aware of this and therefore looks at things as if they were corporeality alien to it, i.e. something that opposes consciousness as external foreign objects.
At the next stage, consciousness turns its interest on itself, becoming the object of cognition of itself, "self-awareness". “...Consciousness is, on the one hand, the awareness of the object, and on the other hand, the awareness of oneself: the awareness of what is true for him, and the awareness of his knowledge of this. Since both are for the same [consciousness], then it is itself their comparison; for one and the same [consciousness], it turns out whether its knowledge of the subject corresponds to the latter or does not correspond. Hegel. Phenomenology of the Spirit. // Hegel. Works: In 14 volumes - M .: Sotsegiz, 1959. - T. 4. - p. 48. Here the consciousness itself determines its object and therefore becomes active, practically active, creative. It is this that helps him to comprehend his universality, to see in himself the absolute fullness of reality and to move to the next, higher level, where the inner relationship and even identity with the external world is revealed to consciousness, the difference between the subject and the object of cognition disappears. In this work, Hegel sets the task of overcoming the point of view of individual consciousness, for which, in his opinion, only the opposition of subject and object exists. This opposition can be removed only through the progressive development of consciousness, in the course of which the individual consciousness goes through all the path, all those stages that mankind has passed throughout its history. At the same time, Hegel does not present the history of culture in the same sequence and in the same empirical form as it is presented in the works of historians, philologists, literary critics, and linguists. He gives, as it were, a philosophical squeeze and a philosophical interpretation of all the wealth of historical knowledge that he himself possessed, as well as many of his contemporaries who received a classical gymnasium and university education. Thus, Hegel offers, as it were, a ladder, climbing which each individual person joins the spiritual experience accumulated by mankind, joins the world culture and rises from the point of view of everyday consciousness to the point of view of philosophy. At the top of this ladder, any individual, far from being a brilliantly gifted exception, is able, according to Hegel, to look at the world and at himself from the point of view of the completed world history, the “world spirit”, for which there is no longer an opposition of subject and object, “consciousness ” and “object”, but there is an absolute identity, identity of thought and being.
Having reached absolute identity, philosophy leaves the point of view of ordinary consciousness and only now falls into its true element - the element of pure thinking, where, according to Hegel, all the definitions of thought unfold from itself. This is the realm of logic, where the subjectively unclouded life of a concept takes place. “The object, what it is without thinking and without concept, is a representation or even just a name; only in the definitions of thought and conceptthere is what There is. Therefore, in reality, the matter is in them alone; They true subject and the content of the mind, and everything that is usually understood by the object and content in contrast to them, has a meaning only through them and in them. Hegel. Science of logic. - M.: Thought, 1972. - T. 3. - p. 298.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1837)
An era captured in thought. Objective idealist. Graduated from Gübenger University (Goethe and Schelling study there). Despite the fact that such talented people studied there, the teachers there were not democrats.
The first philosophical work in a theological light is The Life of Jesus. Acts as a herald of Kant's philosophy. Only at the turn of the century did Hegel turn to philosophy - "The differences between the system of philosophy of Fichte and Schelling." "Phenomenology of Spirit" - i.e. the phenomenon of the spirit is called the secret source of all Hegel's philosophy; the doctrine of the history of the human spirit - the unity of individual knowledge and spiritual development human
From personal qualities: not devoid of snobbery, appreciated his work. Hegel is a clear rationalist: logic, reason, system. Truth does not exist in art, as in Schelling, but in a system imbued with logic.
The next work is "The Science of Logic". The name itself is very indicative, since logic occupies a significant place, since the subject of logic is the spiritual principle that Hegel puts at the basis of the philosophical system - this is the concept of an absolute idea.
Hegel's task is to show the ways of self-knowledge of the absolute idea. That is, Hegel tried to develop the first initial position of the absolute idea, and then show the ways of its saturation, the process of self-knowledge. The absolute idea unfolds itself through the categories that form the basis of reality. Something can be formulated as the identity of being and thinking (coincidence of being and thinking). Logic is the basis of reality, and the way self-knowledge proceeds corresponds to logic. Reality is the sphere of application of logic.
Hegel builds a system of categories that makes it possible to know the world as a whole and separately. The subordination of categories, i.e., the movement from the abstract (not complete, not meaningful) to the concrete (expanded, complete).
Logics
Hegel considers the relationship between the logical and the historical: the logical is the development of knowledge, and the historical is the development of the object itself, that is, something external to man.
Here Hegel for the first time develops the laws of dialectics. Dialectics is the science of the development and dynamism of the world. Basic elements of dialectics: principles, laws, categories.
Laws of dialectics:
1. unity and struggle of opposites, revealing the source of development
2. the law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes, reveals the mechanism of development
3. negation of negation - shows the direction of development
Principles - Guidelines
development - the transition from simple to complex, forward movement
general connections and interactions
Laws- a stable, repetitive connection between phenomena and processes.
Hegel explores the process of logical thinking, analyzes the concept, judgment, conclusion.
Hegel ascribes colossal significance to the concept of truth. Truth is a developing knowledge, truth acts as a process. Truth is the unity of theory and practice, therefore it is not alone and it develops. Pure booleans the foundations form the basis. The system of triads: thesis - antithesis - synthesis. Thesis - pure logical entities, where the idea finds many essential characteristics. Antithesis is the otherness of ideas.
Philosophy of nature
The purpose of nature is to prepare the emergence of consciousness. Nature does not develop in time .... an inert, inert beginning, therefore it is not logical; accidents rather than laws often take place. Nature strives for organization, although the principle of development does not work in it. Nature cannot give the idea of genuine, deep characteristics.
Philosophy of spirit
Synthesis - the philosophy of the spirit, the analysis of human society, individual consciousness, the development of doctrines of individual consciousness, considers the history of the development of society (various forms of social consciousness: religion, law).
The spirit is not equal to the idea, since the spirit has gone through all the stages from the absolute idea to the absolute spirit. Spirit is the return of an idea to itself. Doctrine of objective spirit- the history of society. History, according to Hegel, appears with the emergence of the state, and the World Spirit begins its incarnation in the Prussian monarchy. Religion is a manifestation of the absolute spirit, but only the contemplation of God, the doctrine of the divine.
Hegel writes an encyclopedia of philosophical sciences: logic, philosophy of nature, philosophy of spirit, phenomenology of spirit.
Question number 21. Feuerbach's anthropological materialism
Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach (1804-1872) listened to Hegel's lectures, but immediately disagreed with him. Hegel did not sympathize with him at all. Initially, it becomes on a materialistic basis, therefore Hegel's idealism seems to him not significant. Feuerbach became the founder of anthropological materialism.
By the mid-30s, F. had already formed and did not grow further. And at the end of his life, he generally joined the Social Democratic Party, so we can say that his philosophy is influenced by the requirements of this party. And the party demanded natural rights: to eliminate alienation and adequately represent the essence of the person himself (well, simple rights ... like to life). For F. It was important to stop the alienation of man in all forms ("Thoughts about death and immortality" - the main feature of philosophy).
F. First tried to approach the philosophical understanding of anthropology. I studied the ratio of human principles: me and you. He believed that the real sensual being is the truth. It is necessary to proceed from the real feelings of the individual. The starting point of his philosophy is MAN.
In general, the term anthropology is introduced by Aristotle: "the totality of knowledge about the spiritual side of a human being." In the 19-20 centuries - the doctrine of the physical structure of man.
Man is the unity of the emotional and the rational (2nd half of the 20th century). F. Approaches the philosophy of anthropology. A person, according to F., becomes a personality only when communicating with other individuals. The ratio of two integers, two concepts: "I" and "YOU".
F. Reduces philosophy to man, his subjective, personal beginning.
Man is a social being. Emphasizes the relationship of an individual, personal order: family, marriage, sexual ... Social relations for F. are only moral and ethical, in which love is the leading principle. Love is an ontological (the doctrine of the basic principles of the universe) proof of the objectivity of the world. Instead of love for God, love for man. Sexual relations are primary moral relations. F. is an atheist, but proclaims "love your neighbor." The natural principle is the external manifestation of being. Man and his consciousness are the evolutionary path of the natural principle.
The essence of F.'s anthropological materialism is the humanistic sound of his philosophical system. Love can become the only meaning of being. Characteristic is the transition from classical philosophy (dogmatism, reliance on the leading principle of monistic theory) to neoclassical types of philosophizing (one aspect of human existence, one section).
Ticket number 22 The main ideas and evolution of the philosophy of Marxism
Karl Marx (1818-1883). Born (Trier) in a wealthy family of Jewish rabbis who converted to Christianity. From his father he inherited the art of eloquence. Capable of mathematics and languages. He was influenced by Voltaire, Rousseau, that is, social thinkers. 35g. – University of Bonn. He joins the philosophy of Hegel, studies his "Philosophy of Law". We can say that Marx is Hegel, presented on a materialistic platform.
The outstanding significance of Hegel's philosophy lay in the fact that it presented in a systematic form the dialectical worldview and the corresponding dialectical method of research. Hegel developed dialectics as a philosophical science that summarizes the entire history of knowledge and explores the most general patterns of development of objective reality. In particular, Hegel sought to explore and comprehensively substantiate the most important principles of the dialectical way of thinking, which is fundamentally opposed to metaphysics. Having subjected the metaphysical method to deep and thorough criticism, Hegel formulated, albeit in an idealistic form, the laws and categories of dialectics.
Nature, according to Hegel, exists independently of man, and human knowledge has an objective content. Hegel taught that phenomena are just as objective as essence, essence is, i.e. is found in the phenomenon, in view of which the phenomenon is also essential. Knowing the phenomena, we thereby know the essence
Proceeding from the dialectical position on the unity of essence and phenomenon, Hegel rejected the Kantian doctrine of the unknowability of the "thing in itself"; in the nature of things there are no insurmountable barriers to knowledge.
Thinking, according to Hegel, is not only a subjective, human activity, but also an objective essence independent of a person, the fundamental principle, the primary source of everything that exists. Thinking, Hegel argues, "alienates" its being in the form of matter, nature, which is the "other being" of this objectively existing thinking, which Hegel calls the absolute idea. From this point of view, the mind is not a specific feature of a person, but the fundamental principle of the world, from which it follows that the world is basically logical, exists and develops according to the laws inherent in thinking, reason. Thus, thinking and reason are considered by Hegel as the absolute essence of nature, man, world history, independent of man and mankind. Hegel seeks to prove that thinking, as a substantial essence, is not outside the world, but in itself, as its inner content, manifested in all the variety of phenomena of reality.
Thinking, in comparison with sensory perceptions, is the highest form of cognition of the external world.
The basic form of thinking is the concept. It, according to his teaching, "is the beginning of all life" and is "an infinite creative form that contains within itself the fullness of any content and at the same time serves as its source."
So, the starting point of the Hegelian philosophical system is the idealistic identification of thinking and being, the reduction of all processes to the process of thinking. Actual history is reduced to the history of knowledge, and the growth and deepening of knowledge about the world is considered as the development of reality itself. Hegel deifies the process of cognition carried out by mankind, passing it off as divine self-knowledge, as well as the knowledge of God by mankind and thereby itself.
Hegel divides logic into the doctrine of being, essence, concept. The beginning of everything is pure nothingness, since it is at the same time pure thought. In this case, it is at the same time nothing, devoid of any definitions. Being and nothing mutually pass into each other, becoming takes place, in which both being and nothing are removed, i.e. they are both abolished and preserved
The logical process of development ends with Hegel with the concept of "absolute idea", which at first "alienates" its being, gives it a movement, as a result of which being becomes meaningful. Then it reveals itself as an essence, as a concept, and, finally, thanks to the development of the concept, as an “absolute idea”, which acts as a systematic, diverse unity of all sides, logical definitions, characterizes not only the world as a whole, but also its knowledge.
20G. Hegel about man and society.
The anthropological concept of Hegel, like all his philosophy, is imbued with rationalism. The very difference between man and animal lies primarily in thinking, which communicates to everything human its humanity. He most forcefully expressed the position of a person as a subject of spiritual activity and a bearer of a generally significant spirit and mind. Personality, in contrast to the individual, begins only with a person's awareness of himself as a being "infinite, universal and free." In his analysis of the social order, Hegel went further than his predecessors. He emphasized the great role of the instruments of production, economic and social relations, and the geographical environment in the development of mankind. Hegel understood the history of mankind not as a chain of random events. For him, it had a natural character, in which the world mind is revealed. True, Hegel immediately explained that people, pursuing their goals, at the same time realize historical necessity, without themselves realizing it. The meaning of all world history, according to Hegel, is progress in the consciousness of freedom - progress that we must recognize in its necessity. Hegel distinguishes between civil society and the political state. Civil society, in his understanding, is the sphere of realization of private goals and interests of an individual. Civil society and the state, according to the Hegelian concept, are related as reason and reason. Civil society is the "external state", "the state of need and reason", and the true state is rational, it is the foundation of civil society. For Hegel, freedom, law, justice are valid only in a state that corresponds to the "idea of the state." Hegel agrees with the ideas of Locke and Montesquieu about the separation of powers in a state where public freedom is guaranteed. According to Hegel, the internal sovereignty of the state consists in the domination of the whole, in the dependence and subordination of various authorities to state unity.
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